Nahda
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The Nahda (
In traditional scholarship, the Nahda is seen as connected to the cultural shock brought on by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798, and the reformist drive of subsequent rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt. However, more recent scholarship has shown the Nahda's cultural reform program to have been as "autogenetic" as it was Western-inspired, having been linked to the Tanzimat—the period of reform within the Ottoman Empire which brought a constitutional order to Ottoman politics and engendered a new political class—as well as the later Young Turk Revolution, allowing proliferation of the press and other publications[1] and internal changes in political economy and communal reformations in Egypt and Syria and Lebanon.[2]
The renaissance itself started simultaneously in both Egypt and the Levant.[3] Due to their differing backgrounds, the aspects that they focused on differed as well; with Egypt focused on the political aspects of the Islamic world while Greater Syria focused on the more cultural aspects.[4] The concepts were not exclusive by region however, and this distinction blurred as the renaissance progressed.
Early figures
Rifa'a al-Tahtawi
Egyptian scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873) is widely seen as the pioneering figure of the Nahda. He was sent to Paris in 1826 by Muhammad Ali's government to study Western sciences and educational methods, although originally to serve as
After five years in France, he then returned to Egypt to implement the philosophy of reform he had developed there, summarizing his views in the book Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz (sometimes translated as The Quintessence of Paris), published in 1834. It is written in rhymed prose, and describes France and Europe from an Egyptian Muslim viewpoint. Tahtawi's suggestion was that the Egypt and the Muslim world had much to learn from Europe, and he generally embraced Western society, but also held that reforms should be adapted to the values of Islamic culture. This brand of self-confident but open-minded modernism came to be the defining creed of the Nahda.
Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq
Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (born 1805 or 1806 as Faris ibn Yusuf al-Shidyaq; died 1887) grew up in present-day Lebanon. A Maronite Christian by birth, he later lived in major cities of the Arab world, where he had his career. He converted to Protestantism during the nearly two decades that he lived and worked in Cairo, present-day Egypt, from 1825 to 1848. He also spent time on the island of Malta. Participating in an Arabic translation of the Bible in Great Britain that was published in 1857, Faris lived and worked there for 7 years, becoming a British citizen. He next moved to Paris, France, for two years in the early 1850s, where he wrote and published some of his most important work.
Later in the 1850s Faris moved to Tunisia, where in 1860 he converted to Islam, taking the first name Ahmad. Moving to Istanbul later that year to work as a translator at the request of the Ottoman government, Faris also founded an Arabic-language newspaper. It was supported by the Ottomans, Egypt and Tunisia, publishing until the late 1880s.
Faris continued to promote Arabic language and culture, resisting the 19th-century "Turkization" pushed by the Ottomans based in present-day Turkey. Shidyaq is considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern Arabic literature; he wrote most of his fiction in his younger years.
Butrus al-Bustani
Butrus al-Bustani (1819–1893) was born to a
After the bloody
In the social, national and political spheres, Al-Bustani founded associations with a view to forming a national elite and launched a series of appeals for unity in his magazine Nafir Suriyya.[3]
In the cultural/scientific fields, he published a fortnightly review and two daily newspapers. In addition, he began work, together with Drs.
His prolific output and groundbreaking work led to the creation of modern Arabic expository prose. While educated by Westerners, and a strong advocate of Western technology, he was a fierce secularist, playing a decisive role in formulating the principles of Syrian nationalism (not to be confused with Arab nationalism).
Stephen Sheehi states that Al-Bustani's "importance does not lie in his prognosis of Arab culture or his national pride. Nor is his advocacy of discriminatingly adopting Western knowledge and technology to "awaken" the Arabs' inherent ability for cultural success,(najah), unique among his generation. Rather, his contribution lies in the act of elocution. That is, his writing articulates a specific formula for native progress that expresses a synthetic vision of the matrix of modernity within Ottoman Syria."[6]
Bustani's son Salim was also part of the movement.[7]
Hayreddin Pasha
Hayreddin Pasha al-Tunsi (1820–1890) had made his way to Ottoman Tunisia as a slave, where he rose through the ranks of the government of Ahmad Bey, the modernizing ruler of Tunisia. He soon was made responsible for diplomatic missions to the Ottoman Empire and the countries of Europe, bringing him into contact with Western ideals, as well as with the Tanzimat reforms of the Ottoman Empire. He served as Prime Minister of Tunisia from 1859 until 1882. In this period, he was a major force of modernization in Tunisia.
In numerous writings, he envisioned a seamless blending of Islamic tradition with Western modernization. Basing his beliefs on European Enlightenment writings and Arabic political thought, his main concern was with preserving the autonomy of the Tunisian people in particular, and Muslim peoples in general. In this quest, he ended up bringing forth what amounted to the earliest example of Muslim constitutionalism.[8] His modernizing theories have had an enormous influence on Tunisian and Ottoman thought.
Francis Marrash
Syrian scholar, publicist, writer, poet and physician
Marrash has been considered the first truly cosmopolitan Arab intellectual and writer of modern times, having adhered to and defended the principles of the French Revolution in his own works, implicitly criticizing Ottoman rule in Western Asia and North Africa.
He also tried to introduce "a revolution in diction, themes, metaphor and imagery in modern Arabic poetry".[12] His use of conventional diction for new ideas is considered to have marked the rise of a new stage in Arabic poetry which was carried on by the Mahjaris.[13]
Politics and society
Proponents of the Nahda typically supported reforms. While al-Bustani and al-Shidyaq "advocated reform without revolution", the "trend of thought advocated by Francis Marrash [...] and Adib Ishaq" (1856–1884) was "radical and revolutionary.[14]
In 1876, the
The introduction of
This was complemented by the rise of other national movements, including
Women's rights
Al-Shidyaq defended women's rights in Leg Over Leg, which was published as early as 1855 in Paris. Esther Moyal, a Lebanese Jewish author, wrote extensively on women's rights in her magazine The Family throughout the 1890s.
Religion
In the religious field,
Al-Afghani influenced many, but greatest among his followers is undoubtedly his student
Among the students of Abduh were Syrian Islamic scholar and reformer
Christians
This cultural renaissance during the late Ottoman rule was a quantum leap for Arabs in the post-industrial revolution, and is not limited to the individual fields of cultural renaissance in the nineteenth century, as the Nahda only extended to include the spectrum of society and the fields as a whole. Christian colleges (accepting of all faiths) like
In the early 20th century, many prominent
Shia Islam
Science
Many student missions from Egypt went to Europe in the early 19th century to study arts and sciences at European universities and acquire technical skills.
Arabic-language magazines began to publish articles of scientific vulgarization.
Modern literature
Through the 19th century and early 20th centuries, a number of new developments in Arabic literature started to emerge, initially sticking closely to the classical forms, but addressing modern themes and the challenges faced by the Arab world in the modern era. Francis Marrash was influential in introducing French romanticism in the Arab world, especially through his use of poetic prose and prose poetry, of which his writings were the first examples in modern Arabic literature, according to
Jurji Zaydan (1861–1914) developed the genre of the Arabic historical novel. May Ziadeh (1886–1941) was also a key figure in the early 20th century Arabic literary scene.
Aleppine writer Qustaki al-Himsi (1858–1941) is credited with having founded modern Arabic literary criticism, with one of his works, The researcher's source in the science of criticism.[34][35]
An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes of
Dissemination of ideas
Newspapers and journals
The first printing press in the Middle East was in the Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya in Lebanon and dates back to 1610. It printed books in Syriac and Garshuni (Arabic using the Syriac alphabet). The first printing press with Arabic letters was built in St John's monastery in Khinshara, Lebanon by "Al-Shamas Abdullah Zakher" in 1734. The printing press operated from 1734 till 1899.[36]
In 1821, Muhammad Ali of Egypt brought the first printing press to Egypt.[37] Modern printing techniques spread rapidly and gave birth to a modern Egyptian press, which brought the reformist trends of the Nahda into contact with the emerging Egyptian middle class of clerks and tradesmen.
In 1855,
Encyclopedias and dictionaries
The efforts at translating
In the late 19th century, Butrus al-Bustani created the first modern Arabic encyclopedia, drawing both on medieval Arab scholars and Western methods of lexicography. Ahmad Rida (1872–1953) created the first modern dictionary of Arabic, Matn al-Lugha.
Literary salons
Different salons appeared.
See also
Notes
- equal suffrage, equality before the law, the development of infrastructure, support for trade and commerce, state funds for inventors, and the regular maintenance of buildings and public space.[9]
References
- ^ Adnan A. Musallam, Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era Archived 19 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Stephen Sheehi, Foundations of Modern Arab Identity. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 [1]
- ^ hdl:10603/116505.
- The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
- ^ Peter Gran, "Tahtawi in Paris Archived 19 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine," Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No.568, 10–16 January 2002.
- ^ Stephen Sheehi, "Butrus al-Bustani: Syria's Ideologue of the Age," in "The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers, and Identity", Adel Bishara (ed.). London: Routledge, 2011, pp. 57–78
- S2CID 232248436.
- ISBN 9789004289857.
- ^ Wielandt 1992, pp. 129–130, 135.
- ^ Moreh 1988, p. 95; Hourani 1983, p. 247.
- ^ Suleiman 2003, p. 114.
- ^ Moreh 1976, p. 45.
- ^ Moreh 1976, p. 44
- ^ Zeitschrift für internationale Freimaurerforschung. 2006. p. 62.
- ^ Gran, Peter (January 2002). "Tahtawi in Paris". Al-Ahram Weekly Online (568). Archived from the original on 24 June 2003.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-829388-0. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
- ISBN 978-3-030-54008-1.
- ^ Hourani 1983, p. [page needed].
- ISBN 978-1-888456-04-2. Archivedfrom the original on 6 January 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ Ira M. Lapidus, Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History, (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 200.
- ^ Boueiz Kanaan, Claude. Lebanon 1860–1960: A Century of Myth and Politics. la University of Michigan. p. 127.
- ^ Lattouf, 2004, p. 70
- ^ Teague, Michael (2010). "The New Christian Question". Al Jadid Magazine. 16 (62). Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
- ^ محطات مارونية من تاريخ لبنان، مرجع سابق، ص.185
- ^ Fahrenthold, Stacy (2014). Making Nations, in the Mahjar: Syrian and Lebanese Long-distance Nationalisms in New York City, São Paulo, and Buenos Aires, 1913–1929. Northeastern University. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8156-0739-7.
- ^ Moreh 1976, p. 85.
- ISBN 978-0-7103-0663-0. Archivedfrom the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
- ^ Aflaq, Michel (1977). Choice of Texts from the Baʻth Party Founder's Thought. Unity Freedom Socialism. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
- ^ Asian and African Studies. Jerusalem Academic Press. 1973. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-4848-3.
- ^ Moreh 1976, p. 292; Jayyusi 1977, p. 23.
- ^ See Somekh, "The Neo-Classical Poets" in M.M. Badawi (ed.) "Modern Arabic Literature", Cambridge University Press 1992, pp36-82
- ^ "صحيفة الثورة". صحيفة الثورة.
- ISBN 9953-36-784-1.
- ^ Pascal Zoghbi, "[The First Arabic Script Printing Press in Lebanon: Arabic Type Designer & Typographer: Arabic Type. 29 letters 5 January 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2011.]".
- ^ Sabri Al-Adl, "All the Pasha's Papers Archived 2 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine," Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No. 742, 12–18 May 2005.
- ^ a b ""العروة الوثقى" عبر الهند". www.alkhaleej.ae. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
- ^ "Urwat al-Wuthqa, al- – Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ "الارشيف". archive.islamonline.net. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ "Urwa al-Wuthqa, al- | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
- ^ Watenpaugh, H. Z., 2010, p. 227; Watenpaugh, K. D., 2006, p. 52.
- ISBN 978-9774161469.
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-521-27423-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-04920-8.
- ISBN 978-90-04-04795-2.
- Moreh, Shmuel (1988). Studies in Modern Arabic Prose and Poetry. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08359-2.
- ISBN 978-0-87840-395-0.
- Watenpaugh, Heghnar Zeitlian (2010). "The Harem as Biography: Domestic Architecture, Gender and Nostalgia in Modern Syria". In Booth, Marilyn (ed.). Harem Histories: Envisioning Places and Living Spaces. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822348580.
- ISBN 978-0691121697.
- Wielandt, Rotraud (1992). "Fransis Fathallah Marrashs Zugang zum Gedankengut der Aufklärung und der französischen Revolution". In ISBN 978-90-5183-397-3.
Further reading
- ISBN 0-446-39392-4)
- Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
- Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God, New York City, 2000.
- Samir Kassir, Considérations sur le malheur arabe, Paris, 2004.
- Stephen Sheehi, Foundations of Modern Arab Identity, University Press of Florida, 2004.
- Fruma Zachs and Sharon Halevi, From Difa Al-Nisa to Masalat Al-Nisa in greater Syria: Readers and writers debate women and their rights, 1858–1900. International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (2009): 615 – 633.
External links
- Plain talk – by Mursi Saad ed-Din, in Al-Ahram Weekly.
- Tahtawi in Paris – by Peter Gran, in Al-Ahram Weekly.
- France as a Role Model – by Barbara Winckler