Nahuas
San Luis Potosi and Guerrero
|
The Nahuas (
Their
It is suggested that the Nahua peoples originated near
Nomenclature
The name Nahua is derived from the Nahuatl word-root nāhua- [ˈnaːwa-],[11] which generally means "audible, intelligible, clear" with different derivations including "language" (hence nāhuat(i) [ˈnaːwat(i)] "to speak clearly" and nāhuatl [ˈnaːwat͡ɬ] both "something that makes an agreeble sound" and "someone who speaks well or speak one's own language").[12] It was used in contrast with popoloca [popoˈloka], "to speak unintelligibly" or "speak a foreign language".[13] Another, related term is Nāhuatlācatl [naːwaˈt͡ɬaːkat͡ɬ] (singular) or Nāhuatlācah [naːwaˈt͡ɬaːkaʔ] (plural) literally "Nahuatl-speaking people".[12]
The Nahuas are also sometimes referred to as Aztecs. Using this term for the Nahuas has generally fallen out of favor in scholarship, though it is still used for the Aztec Empire. They have also been called Mēxihcatl [meːˈʃiʔkat͡ɬ] (singular), Mēxihcah [meːˈʃiʔkaʔ] (plural)[14] or in Spanish Mexicano(s) [mexiˈkano(s)] "Mexicans", after the Mexica, the Nahua tribe which founded the Aztec Empire.
Geography
At the turn of the 16th century, Nahua populations occupied territories ranging across Mesoamerica as far south as
The last of the southern Nahua populations today are the Pipil of El Salvador and the Nicarao of Nicaragua.[18] Nahua populations in Mexico are centered in the middle of the country, with most speakers in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Guerrero and San Luis Potosí. However, smaller populations are spread throughout the country due to recent population movements within Mexico. Within the last 50 years, Nahua populations have appeared in the United States, particularly in New York City, Los Angeles, and Houston.[19]
History
Pre-conquest period
Archaeological, historical and linguistic evidence suggest that the Nahuas originally came from the deserts of northern Mexico (
Around 1000 CE the
From this period on the Nahua were the dominant ethnic group in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, and migrations kept coming in from the north. After the fall of the Toltecs a period of large population movements followed and some Nahua groups such as the Pipil and Nicarao arrived as far south as northwestern Costa Rica.[25][26][27][28] And in central Mexico different Nahua groups based in their different "Altepetl" city-states fought for political dominance. The Xochimilca, based in Xochimilco ruled an area south of Lake Texcoco; the Tepanecs ruled the area to the west and the Acolhua ruled an area to the east of the valley. One of the last of the Nahua migrations to arrive in the valley settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group were the Mexica who during the next 300 years became the dominant ethnic group of Mesoamerica ruling from Tenochtitlan their island capital. They formed the Aztec Empire after allying with the Tepanecs and Acolhua people of Texcoco, spreading the political and linguistic influence of the Nahuas well into Central America.
Conquest period (1519–1523)
In 1519 an expedition of Spaniards sailing from Cuba under the leadership of
Colonial period (1521–1821)
With the arrival of the
Stage one (1519–c. 1550) Conquest and early colonial period
The early period saw the first stages of the establishment of churches by mendicant friars in large and important Indian towns, the assertion of crown control over New Spain by the high court (Audiencia) and then the establishment of the viceroyalty, and the heyday of conqueror power over the indigenous via the
As the Spaniards sought to extend their political dominance into the most remote corners of Mesoamerica, the Nahua accompanied them as auxiliaries. In the early colonial period, new Nahua settlements were made in northern Mexico and far south into Central America. Nahua forces often formed the bulk of the Spanish military expeditions that conquered other Mesoamerican peoples, such as the Maya, Zapotecs, and Mixtecs.
With the arrival of Christian missionaries, the first priority of the colonial authorities was eradicating indigenous religious practices, something they achieved by a combination of violence and threats of violence, and patient education. Nahua were baptized with Spanish names. The Nahua who did not abandon their religious practices were severely punished or executed. The Nahua, however, often incorporated pre-Christian practices and beliefs into the Christian religion without the authorities' noticing it. Often they kept practicing their own religion in the privacy of their homes, especially in rural areas where Spanish presence was almost completely lacking and the conversion process was slow.
The Nahua quickly took the Latin alphabetic writing as their own. Within 20 years of the arrival of the Spanish, the Nahua were composing texts in their own language. In 1536 the first university of the Americas, the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco was inaugurated. It was established by the Franciscans whose aim was to educate young Nahua noblemen to be Catholic priests who were trilingual: literate in Spanish, Latin and Nahuatl.[37]
Stage two (c. 1550 – c. 1650)
There are a large number of texts by and about Nahuas in this middle period and during this period Nahuatl absorbed a large number of loanwords from Spanish, particularly nouns for particular objects, indicating the closer contact between the European sphere and the indigenous. However, Nahuatl verbs and syntax show no evidence of the impact of Spanish contact.[38] In the mid-sixteenth century, cultural change at the local level can be tracked through the production of Nahuatl alphabetic texts. The production of a wide range of written documents in Nahuatl dates from this period, including legal documents for transactions (bills of sale), minutes of indigenous town council (cabildo) records, petitions to the crown, and others.
Institutionally, indigenous town government shifted from the rule of the tlatoani and noblemen to the establishment of Spanish-style town councils (cabildos), with officers holding standard Spanish titles. A classic study of sixteenth-century Tlaxcala, the main ally of the Spaniards in the conquest of the Mexica, shows that much of the prehispanic structure continued into the colonial period.[39] An important set of cabildo records in Nahuatl for Tlaxcala is extant and shows how local government functioned in for nearly a century.[40]
Regarding religion, by the mid- to late 16th century, even the most zealous mendicants of the first generation doubted the capacity of Nahua men to become Christian priests so that the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco ceased to function to that end and in 1555 Indians were barred from ordination to the priesthood. However, in local communities, stone-built church complexes continued to be built and elaborated, with murals in mixed indigenous-Spanish forms.[41] Confraternities (cofradías) were established to support the celebrations of a particular Christian saint and functioned as burial societies for members. During this period, an expression of personal piety, the Church promoted the making of last wills and testaments, with many testators donating money to their local Church to say Masses for their souls.
For individual Nahua men and women dictating a last will and testament to a local Nahua notary (escribano) became standard. These wills provide considerable information about individuals' residence, kin relations, and property ownership provides a window into social standing, differences between the sexes, and business practices at the local level. showing not only that literacy of some elite men in alphabetic writing in Nahuatl was a normal part of everyday life at the local level[42] and that the notion of making a final will was expected, even for those who had little property. A number of studies in the tradition of what is now called the New Philology extensively use Nahuatl wills as a source.[43][44][45]
Stage three (c. 1650 – 1821) Late colonial period to independence
From the mid-seventeenth century to the achievement of independence in 1821, Nahuatl shows considerable impact from the European sphere and a full range of bilingualism.[46] Texts produced at the local level that in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were sometimes a mixture of pictorial and alphabetic forms of expression were now primarily alphabetic.[47] In the late eighteenth century, there is evidence of text being written in "Nahuatlized Spanish", written by Nahuas who were now communicating in their own form of Spanish.[48] Year-by-year accounts of major occurrences, a text known as an annal, no longer reference the prehispanic period.[49] Local level documentation for individual Nahuas continued to be produced, in particular last wills and testaments, but they are much more simplified than those produced in the late sixteenth century.[50][51]
Nahuas began to produce an entirely new type of text, known as "primordial titles" or simply "titles" (títulos), that assert indigenous communities' rights to particular territory, often by recording local lore in an atemporal fashion. There is no known prehispanic precedent for this textual form and none appears before 1650.[52] Several factors might be at work for the appearance of titles. One might be a resurgence of indigenous population after decades recovering from devastating epidemics when communities might have been less concerned with Spanish encroachment. Another might be the crown's push to regularize defective land titles via a process known as composición.[53] The crown had mandated minimum land holdings for indigenous communities at 600 varas, in property that was known as the fundo legal, and to separate indigenous communities from Spanish lands by more than 1,100 varas. Towns were to have access to water, uplands for gathering firewood, and agricultural land, as well as common lands for pasturage.[54] Despite these mandated legal protections for Indian towns, courts continued to find in favor of Spaniards and the rules about minimum holdings for Indian towns were ignored in practice.[55]
Labor arrangements between Nahuas and Spaniards were largely informal, rather than organized through the mainly defunct encomienda and the poorly functioning repartimiento. Spanish landed estates needed a secure labor force, often a mixture of a small group of permanent laborers and part-time or seasonal laborers drawn from nearby indigenous communities. Individual Indians made arrangements with estate owners rather than labor being mobilized via the community. The indigenous communities continued to function as political entities, but there was greater fragmentation of units as dependent villages (sujetos) of the main settlement (cabecera) sought full, independent status themselves.[49] Indigenous officials were no longer necessarily noblemen.
National period (1821-present)
With the achievement of Mexican independence in 1821, the casta system, which divided the population into racial categories with differential rights, was eliminated and the term "Indian" (indio) was no longer used by government, although it continued to be used in daily speech.[56] The creation of a republic in 1824 meant that Mexicans of all types were citizens rather than vassals of the crown. One important consequence for Nahua people and other Indigenous people was that documentation in the native languages generally ceased to be produced. Indigenous towns did not cease to exist nor did indigenous populations speaking their own language, but the Indigenous people were far more marginalized in the post-independence period than during the colonial era. In the colonial era the crown had a paternalistic stance toward the Indigenous people, in essence according them special rights, a fuero, and giving support to structures in Indigenous towns and giving Indigenous people a level of protection against those who were not Indigenous. This can be seen in the establishment of the General Indian Court where Indigenous towns and individual Indigenous people could sue those making incursions on their land and other abuses.[57] These protections disappeared in the national period. One scholar has characterized the early national period of Nahua people and other Indigenous people "as the beginning of a systematic policy of cultural genocide and the increasing loss of native languages."[58] Lack of official recognition and both economic and cultural pressures meant that most Indigenous peoples in Central Mexico became more Europeanized and many became Spanish speakers.[58]
In 19th-century Mexico, the so-called "Indian Question" exercised politicians and intellectuals, who viewed Indigenous people as backward, unassimilated to the Mexican nation, whose custom of communal rather than individual ownership of land was impediment to economic progress.
A number of Indigenous men had made a place for themselves in post-independence Mexico, the most prominent being Benito Juárez. But an important nineteenth-century figure of Nahua was Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1834–93), born in Tixtla, Guerrero who became a well respected liberal intellectual, man of letters, politician, and diplomat. Altamirano was a fierce anticlerical politician, and was known for a period as "the Marat of the Radicals" and an admirer of the French Revolution.[62] Altamirano, along with other liberals, saw universal primary public education as a key way to change Mexico, promoting for upward mobility. Altamirano's chief disciple in this view was Justo Sierra.[63] Another prominent Nahua figure of this period was Prospero Cahuantzi, who served as governor of Tlaxcala from 1885-1911.[64] Indigenous surnames were uncommon in post-colonial Mexico but prevalent in Tlaxcala due to certain protections granted by the Spanish government in return for Tlaxcallan support during the overthrow of the Aztecs.[65] Cahuantzi was active in promoting the preservation of indigenous culture and artifacts at a time when Mexican government policy was generally that of suppression.[66]
The Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919) was likely of mixed Nahua-Spanish heritage, with ancestry going back to the Nahua city of Mapaztlán, in the state of Morelos.[67] Zapata was evidently fluent in Nahuatl and would give speeches in the language to Nahua peasants in hopes of inspiring them to join his cause.[68]
Demography
Mexico
Language | Total Persons 3 Years & More Speaking Indigenous Languages | % of Indigenous Speakers 3 Years & More | Total Indigenous Speakers 3 Years & More Who Do Not Speak Spanish | Monolingual Rate (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Náhuatl | 1,651,958 | 22.4% | 111,797 | 6.8% |
Region | Totals | Percentages |
---|---|---|
Federal District
|
37,450 | 0.44% |
Guerrero | 136,681 | 4.44% |
Hidalgo | 221,684 | 9.92% |
Mexico (state)
|
55,802 | 0.43% |
Morelos | 18,656 | 1.20% |
Oaxaca | 10,979 | 0.32% |
Puebla | 416,968 | 8.21% |
San Luis Potosí | 138,523 | 6.02% |
Tlaxcala | 23,737 | 2.47% |
Veracruz | 338,324 | 4.90% |
Rest of Mexico | 50,132 | 0.10% |
Total: | 1,448,937 | 1.49% |
The Mexican government does not categorize its citizens by ethnicity, but only by language. Statistical information recorded about the Nahua deals only with speakers of the Nahuatl language, although unknown numbers of people of Nahua ethnicity have abandoned the language and now speak only Spanish. Other Nahuas, though bilingual in Nahuatl and Spanish, seek to avoid widespread anti-indigenous discrimination by declining to self-identify as Nahua in
As of 2020, Nahuatl is spoken across Mexico by an estimated 1.6 million people, including 111,797 monolingual speakers.[74] This is an increase from 1.4 million people speakers total but a decrease from 190,000 monolingual speakers in 2000.[75] The state of Guerrero had the highest ratio of monolingual Nahuatl speakers, calculated at 24.8%, based on 2000 census figures. The proportion of monolinguals for most other states is less than 5%.[76]
The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of
64.3% of Nahuatl speakers are literate in Spanish compared with the national average of 97.5% for Spanish literacy. Male Nahuatl speakers have 9.8 years of education on average and women 10.1, compared with the 13.6 and 14.1 years that are the national averages for men and women, respectively.[78]
Central America
In El Salvador, it is estimated that there are 12,000 Nahuas/Pipiles.[79] However, some indigenous organizations claim that the real population is significantly higher. Their Nawat language is endangered, but undergoing a revival.
In Honduras, different sources give estimates of 6,339[80] and 19,800[81] persons of Nahua ethnicity. They are concentrated in Olancho, in the municipalities of Catacamas, Gualaco, Guata, Jano and Esquipulas del Norte. Nawat is extinct here.
In
Culture
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Economy
Many Nahua are agriculturists. They practice various forms of cultivation including the use of horses or mules to plow or slash-and-burn. Common crops include corn, wheat, beans, barley, chilli peppers, onions, tomatoes, and squash. Some Nahuas also raise sheep and cattle.[85]
Language
Religion
Dances
Notes
- ^ "Nahua". Dictionary.com. 2012. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
- ^ "Pueblos Indígenas de Honduras | Territorio Indígena y Gobernanza". Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
- ^ "9. Nahoas | Territorio Indígena y Gobernanza". Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
- ^ "Nicarao".
- ^ "2 Ways Nahuatl Helped Shape Nicaraguan Spanish".
- ^ "Do you know the origin of the word Guanacaste". 25 July 2018.
- ^ "Guanacaste is a practically autonomous ethnolinguistic area and different from the rest of the country". 22 July 2020.
- ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - El Salvador". Refworld. Archived from the original on 6 May 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ "Nahua Peoples | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 6 May 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ "Did you know Pipil is critically endangered?". Endangered Languages. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
- ISBN 0806124210.
- ^ a b Kartunnen 1992, p. 157-158.
- ^ Kartunnen 1992, p. 203.
- ^ Kartunnen 1992, p. 145.
- ^ Fowler (1985, p.38).
- ^ "Nicarao".
- ^ Sarah Cline, "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico" in The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Mesoamerica. Volume II, Part 2. Edited by Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod. New York: Cambridge University Press 2000, p. 187.
- ^ "Nahoas. Territorio indígena y gobernanza".
- ^ Flores Farfán (2002, p.229).
- ^ Canger (1980, p.12)
- ^ Kaufman (2001, p.12).
- ^ Suárez (1983, p. 149).
- ^ Kaufman (2001).
- ^ Porter Weaver. 1993. pp. 388-412
- JSTOR j.ctv1qr6sk7.7.
- ^ "Central American Nahua".
- ^ "The Kingdom of this world".
- .
- ^ Account of Bernal Diaz from Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico. edited by Stuart Schwartz (Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's, 2000).
- ^ Restall, 2003
- ^ Charles Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
- ^ James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992.
- ^ Sarah Cline, "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico" in Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas vol. II, Part II, Mesoamerica, 2000, pp. 187-222.
- ^ James Lockhart, 1969, "Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies", Hispanic American Historical Review 49:411-29
- ^ Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New Spain, Austin: University of Texas Press 1991.
- ^ Sarah Cline, The Book of Tributes: Sixteenth-Century Nahuatl Censuses from Morelos. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center 1993.
- ^ Mathes, Michael, 1985, The Americas' first academic library Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, Sacramento" California State Library.
- ^ James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992.
- ^ Charles Gibson, Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press 1952.
- ^ James Lockhart, Frances Berdan, and Arthur J.O. Anderson. The Tlaxcalan Actas: A Compendium of the Records of the Records of the Cabildo of Tlaxcala, 1545-1627. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1986.
- ^ Jeanette Favrot Peterson, The Paradise Garden Murals of Malinalco: Utopia and Empire in Sixteenth-Century Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press 1993.
- ^ Frances Karttunen, "Nahuatl Literacy" in George A. Collier et al. eds. The Inca and Aztec States, pp. 395-417. New York: Academic Press.
- ^ S.L. Cline and Miguel León-Portilla, The Testaments of Culhuacan. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center 1984.
- ^ S.L. Cline, Colonial Culhuacan, 1580-1600: The Social History of an Aztec Town. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1986.
- ^ Susan Kellogg, "Social Organization in Early Colonial Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco: An Ethnohistorical Study." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester.
- ^ James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992, p. 428.
- ^ Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest, p. 428.
- ^ Lockhart, Nahuas After the Conquest, p. 450. Lockhart suggests that this might mark a "Stage 4" of language change.
- ^ a b Lockhart, Nahuas After the Conquest, p. 428.
- ^ Caterina Pizzigoni, Testaments of Toluca. Stanford: Stanford University Press and UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 2007
- ^ Caterina Pizzigoni, The Life Within: Local Indigenous Society in Mexico's Toluca Valley, 1650-1800. Stanford University Press 2012.
- ^ Lockhart, Nahuas After the Conquest, pp. 410-11.
- ^ Charles Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964, p. 285.
- ^ Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule, p. 285.
- ^ Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule, pp. 285-287.
- ^ Frans J. Schreyer, "Native Peoples of Central Mexico Since Independence" in The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Richard N. Adams and Murdo MacLeod, eds. Vol. II, part 2, 2000, p. 229.
- ^ Sarah Cline, "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico", p. 216-217.
- ^ a b Schreyer, "Native Peoples of Central Mexico Since Independence" p. 229.
- ^ Charles A. Hale, Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, New Haven: Yale University Press 1968, 224-225.
- ^ Hale, Mexican Liberalism, p. 225.
- ^ Schreyer, "Native Peoples of Central Mexico Since Independence", p. 243.
- ^ D.A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State 1492-1867. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, p. 659, 663
- ^ Brading, The First America p. 665
- JSTOR 26771098.
- ^ online.ucpress.edu https://online.ucpress.edu/msem/article-abstract/35/1/61/61673/The-Indigenous-Governor-of-Tlaxcala-and-Acceptable?redirectedFrom=fulltext. Retrieved 2 April 2024.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ "Modern-Day Conquistadors: The Decline of Nahuatl, and the Status of Mexican Bilingual Education". Harvard International Review. 27 July 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2024.
- ^ Espinosa, Felipe Ávila (23 April 2019). "Los primeros pasos de Emiliano Zapata". Gatopardo (in Spanish). Retrieved 1 April 2024.
- ^ read.dukeupress.edu https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/61/1/125/149139/Zapata-of-MexicoLos-manifiestos-en-Nahuatl-de. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ "Ethnic Identity in the 2020 Mexican Census". Indigenous Mexico. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
- ^ Source: INEGI (2000). Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state.
- ISBN 978-607-3-00043-7.
- (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
- ^ Enrique Serrano Carreto; Arnulfo Embriz Osorio; Patricia Fernández Ham; et al. (2002). "Indicadores socioeconómicos de los pueblos indígenas de México, 2002" (in Spanish). Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. p. 82. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
- ^ "Ethnic Identity in the 2020 Mexican Census". Indigenous Mexico. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
- ^ "Perfil Sociodemografica de la Populacion Hablante de Nahuatl" (PDF). inegi.gob.mx. INEGI. 2000. p. 43. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008.
- ^ Put another way, more than 95% of the Nahuatl-speaking population also speak at least one other language, most usually Spanish. See corresponding tables in INEGI (2000), p. 43.
- ^ Flores Farfán (2002), p. 229
- ^ "Perfil Sociodemografica de la Populacion Hablante de Nahuatl" (PDF). inegi.gob.mx. INEGI. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008.
- ^ "Pipil in El Salvador".
- ^ "NAHUA – Exposiciones".
- ^ "Pueblos Indígenas de Honduras | Territorio Indígena y Gobernanza".
- ^ "Reconstructing the population history of Nicaragua by means of mtDNA, Y-chromosome STRs, and autosomal STR markers".
- ^ "Reconstructing the Population History of Nicaragua by Means of mtDNA, Y-Chromosome STRs, and Autosomal STR Markers" (PDF).
- ^ "9. Nahoas | Territorio Indígena y Gobernanza".
- ISBN 0-7566-0520-2.
References
- OCLC 7276374.
- S2CID 144210796.
- Flores Farfán; José Antonio (2002). "The Use of Multimedia and the Arts in Language Revitalization, Maintenance, and Development: The Case of the Balsas Nahuas of Guerrero, Mexico" (PDF). In Barbara Jane Burnaby; John Allan Reyhner (eds.). Indigenous Languages across the Community. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Stabilizing Indigenous Languages (7th, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 11–14, 2000). Flagstaff, AZ: Center for Excellence in Education, OCLC 95062129.[permanent dead link]
- Friedlander, Judith (1975). Being Indian in Hueyapan: A Study of Forced Identity in Contemporary Mexico. New York: Saint Martin's Press.
- Fowler, William R. Jr. (1985). "Ethnohistoric Sources on the Pipil Nicarao: A Critical Analysis". Ethnohistory. 32 (1). Durham, NC: OCLC 62217753.
- Hill, Jane H.; Kenneth C. Hill (1986). Speaking Mexicano: Dynamics of Syncretic Language in Central Mexico. Tucson, AZ: OCLC 13126530.
- Kaufman, Terrence (2001). "The history of the Nawa language group from the earliest times to the sixteenth century: some initial results" (PDF) (Revised ed.). Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
- OCLC 24283718.
- OCLC 51022823.
- OCLC 276351.
- Suárez, Jorge A. (1983). The Mesoamerian Indian Languages. Cambridge Languages Surveys series. London: ISBN 0-521-22834-4.
- Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: ISBN 0-01-263999-0.
External links
- Media related to Nahua people at Wikimedia Commons