Nakh peoples

The Nakh peoples are a group of

The ethnonyms "Vainakh", "Nakh" and "Nakhchi"

"Nakh peoples" and "Vainakh peoples" are two terms that were coined by Soviet ethnographers such as the Russian linguist

According to Umalat Laudaev, the first Chechen ethnographer and historian, Nazranians (a subgroup of Ingush) used this ethnonym occasionally:^[11]

The Shatois and Nazranians are reluctant to call themselves Nakhchoy, which stems from their previous hostile attitudes towards the Chechens. But with the outpouring of heartfelt feelings at meetings, at a party, on the way, etc. they always confirm their unity of tribe, expressing themselves: "We are common brothers (wai tsa vezherey detsy)" or "We are the same Nakhchoy (wai tsa nakhchoy du)".

— Umalat Laudaev, "Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders, Vol. VI."

However, it was mentioned by Peter Simon Pallas in the late 18th century that a clear distinction between self-designation of the Ingush and Chechens had already existed:

There is a tribe of people differing entirely from all other inhabitants of the Caucasus, in language as well as in stature, and features of the countenance: the Galgai or Ingush, also referred to as Lamur, meaning "inhabitants of mountains". Their nearest relatives, both by consanguinity and language, are the Chechens, whom they call Natschkha.

— Peter Simon Pallas, "Travels Through the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, in the Years 1793 and 1794"

The 19th century historian Bashir Dalgat [ru] published several works about Chechen and Ingush ethnography. He proposed to use the term "Nakhchuy" for both the Chechens and Ingush.^[12] This, however, had no fruition in Caucasology, mainly due to the fact that the Ingush commonly referred to themselves as "Ghalghaï", while the Chechens called themselves "Nakhchoy" or "Nokhchoy".

The oldest mention of Nakhchiy occurred in 1310 by the

Chechen ethnographer Umalat Laudaev offered a different etymology for the origin of the ethnonym Nakhchi:

In primitive times, having not yet been acquainted with arable farming, for lack of bread they (lowland Chechens) ate a large amount of cheese; boasting of their abundance in front of their compatriots who lived in the meager Argun mountains and populous Ichkeria, they called themselves in Chechen "Nakhchoy". Cheese in Chechen is called "nakhchi"; the plural form of the word is "nakhchiy", hence the popular name "Nakhchoy", that is, "people abounding with cheese." It is also possible that this name was ascribed to the lowland Chechens as a mockery, calling them raw foodists, just as today the Nadterechny Chechens are mockingly called “kaldash yuts nakh”, that is, people who eat cottage cheese. That the Chechens got the name "Nakhchoy" from cheese is also confirmed by the fact that the Nazrans, who do not speak in the same Chechen language, call cheese "nakhchi", and the Chechens - "Nakhchiy".

— Umalat Laudaev, "Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders, Vol. VI."

This version has been criticized by many authors including the Chechen linguist

9th–12th centuries

An association of clans called Durdzuks (Durdzuki) is mentioned by the Persian writers Ibn al-Faqih and al-Baladzori in the 9th to 10th centuries, stating "the construction of Chosroes Anushirvanom (VI) in Durzukia 12 gates and stone fortifications".^[55]

1239

Destruction of the

North-Ossetia

.

13th–14th centuries

Independence wars against Tatar-Mongol hordes and the army of Tamerlane

.

14th–16th centuries

The State of

Arabic writing. Inscriptions on monuments from this time, preserved in some Vainakh villages, also testify to this.^[59]

17th century – present

Ongoing struggle over the independence of Chechnya; Ingush remain less openly rebellious, but still have a particularly problematic

conflict with the Ossetes

; Batsbi and Kists are considered Georgians and are part of Georgia (living mainly in the Tusheti region).

1829–1859

Caucasian Imamate

1917–1922

Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus

1919–1920

North Caucasian Emirate

1921-1924

Russian SFSR

Social structure

Traditionally, Nakh peoples were known as a society with a highly developed and complex clan system. Individuals are united in family groups called "Tsa" – house. Several Tsa's are part of the "Gar" -branch or "Nekh"-road, a group of Gar's is in turn called a teip, a unit of tribal organization of Vainakh people. Teip has its own Council of Elders and unites people from the political, economic and military sides. Teips leave all cases to the democratically elected representatives of houses i.e. "Tsa". The number of participants of Teipan-Kheli depends on the number of houses.

Some believe that most teips made unions called shahars and tukkhums, a military-economic or military-political union of teips. However, this has been heavily disputed by several historians and ethnographers, including Dalgat who claims that most Chechens never used tukkhums. He also claims that they were only used by some societies in the lowlands.^[60]

The national scale issues were addressed through Mehk-Khel, the People's Council. Representatives of the Council were elected by each Teip Council and had an enormous influence on the destiny of the people. They could start a war or prohibit and prevent any teip from starting one. Mehk-Khel could gather in different places at different times. It used to gather in Terloy-Mokhk and Akkhi-Mokhk's Galain-Chozh region. A gigantic Mehk-Kheli stone still stands in Galain-Chozh, around which Mehk-Kheli members solved issues.^[61]

Political structure

Chechen-Ingush society has always been egalitarian, unstratified, and classless. Traditionally, there was no formal political organization and no political or economic ranking.^[62] Many observers, including famous Russians such as Leo Tolstoy, have been very impressed by the democratic nature of the indigenous Chechen governments prior to Russian conquest. According to the Western Ichkerophile Tony Wood, the Vainakh peoples, in particular the Chechens (as the Ingush and the Batsbi have fallen under foreign domination much more frequently and as a result, the indigenous system and democratic values are less deeply ingrained), could be described as one of the few nations in the world with an indigenous system highly resemblant of democracy^[63] (others cited are often Scots, Albanians and Basques; notably, all three, much like the Vainakh peoples, are mountain dwelling peoples with a clan-based social organization and a strong attachment to the concept of freedom). In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a couple of Circassian tribes overthrew their traditional aristocracy and established a democratic, egalitarian society, with some adoptions from the Nakh system. This advance, which may have spread eventually to all of the Circassian tribes, was halted by their political state being annihilated by Russian conquest, a fate later shared by the rest of the Caucasus.

It is notable that the Chechen and Ingush systems, as well as the system later adopted from them by some Eastern Circassian tribes, resembles the typical Western democratic republic. It has a central government with a legislative body (the Mehk-Khel), a body resemblant of an executive branch (the Mehk-Khetasho) as well as a judicial branch (the other councils). The adat and other bodies have served as the constitution. The members of all three of the main national councils of the nation were elected, producing an indigenous democracy of the Nakh peoples.^[64]

During the Soviet Union period, as well as during the Ramzan Kadyrov's regime, the Teip-Council system was strongly criticized by the federal and local administration installed in Chechnya and Ingushetia, who viewed it as a destabilizing force and an obstacle to maintaining order. They said that such a system was illustrative of the anarchic nature of the Caucasian ethos.^[65]

The democratic and egalitarian nature, the values of freedom and equality of Chechen society have been cited as factors contributing to their resistance to Russian rule (in addition, there was no elite to be coopted by Tsarist authorities, as Wood notes).^{[66][67][68][69]}

Tower architecture

A characteristic feature of Vainakh architecture in the Middle Ages, rarely seen outside Chechnya and Ingushetia, was the

Military ("combat") towers were 25 meters high or more,[61] with four of five floors and a square base approximately six meters wide. Access to the second floor was through a ladder. The defenders fired at the enemy through loopholes. The top of the tower had mashikul – overhanging small balconies without a floor. These towers were usually crowned with pyramid-shaped roofing built in steps and topped with a sharpened capstone.

Buildings combining the functions of residential and military towers were intermediate in size between the two types, and had both loop-holes and mashikuls. Nakh towers used to be sparingly decorated with religious or symbolic

Traditional economy

Agricultural structures

Lack of arable land in sufficient quantities in the

Since ancient times Ingush and Chechens have been producing thin felt carpets called Isting (Ingush) or Istang (Chechen).^[75][76][77] Ingush and Chechen rugs are distinguished by a peculiar pattern and high quality. Jacob Reineggs, who visited the region in the 18th century, noticed that Chechen and Ingush women skillfully manufactured carpets and fringes.^[78] Vainakh carpets were divided among themselves into different groups dependent on patterns:

• Сarpet with colorful ornaments (Chechen: Khorza istang), (Ingush: Khoza isting).
• Rug with fringe (Chechen: Khinja yolu istang), (Ingush: Chachakh isting).
• Plain rug, without any decorations or ornaments.
• Thick floor rugs (Chechen: Kuuz), (Ingush: Kuvz)
• Expensive wall carpet (Chechen: Pals)

• Rugs and carpets
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Religion

During the

Only a few fragments of Vainakh mythology have survived to modern times. These fragments consist of the names of deities personifying elements of animist ideas, the Nart sagas, cosmogonic tradition, remnants of stock-breeding and landtilling, totemic beliefs, and folk calendar.^[82]

The greatest samples of Nakh mythology are the legends of Pkharmat, Lake Galanchozh, the epic war of Pkhagalberi (hare riders) dwarves against the Narts, Lake Kezenoyam, and myths about how sun, moon and stars appeared.^[83]

The Nakh myth recounts the tale of the legendary figure Pkharmat, who was purportedly shackled atop Mount Kazbek by God Sela as punishment for his audacious theft of heavenly fire. This narrative bears notable similarities to the Greek myth of Prometheus and the Georgian myth of Amirani. The legendary war of Pkhalberi (hare riders) dwarves against the Narts can be compared to the Greek myth of "Cranes and Pygmies war".^[84] The Golden Fleece myth appears to be intricately intertwined with the Nakh 11-year calendar tradition. According to this myth, a ram's skin was ceremonially placed within an oak frame known as "Jaar" for a duration of 11 years, eventually yielding the revered Golden Fleece known as "Dasho Ertal."^[85]

Legend of Kouzan-Am Lake

This legend has explicit parallels with

Interestingly, the tradition of an ancient settlement associated with the lake is borne out by the archeological record for the area: traces of human habitation dating back as far as 40,000 BC have been found near Kouzan-am. Cave paintings, artifacts, and other archaeological evidence bear witness to continuous habitation for some 8,000 years.[86] People living in these settlements used tools, fire, and clothing made of animal skins.^[86]

Legend of Galain-Am Lake

Legend has it that two women once decided to wash their laundry in the purest water to be found near their village, and that this water proved to be that of the sacred Lake Galain-am, abode of Tusholi, daughter of the Vainakh supreme deity Dela. The goddess, outraged at such sacrilege, punished the offenders by turning them into two stones. This, however, did not solve the problem of the ritually impure lake and the enraged goddess could no longer bear to dwell in its sullied waters. Emerging from them, she assumed the form of a supernatural bull, and began systematically to destroy the villages that dotted the hillside. This destruction continued until, at last, the bull was tamed in the aul of Ame in the area named Galain-Chazh (after the Galay-teip, a clan later deported en masse to Kazakhstan in 1944). The inhabitants of Galain-Chazh harnessed the energies of the newly-tamed animal, availing themselves of its mighty strength to plough their fields; but the following Spring torrential rain began to fall upon the fields which the sacred animal had ploughed. This pelting rain continued to flood the fields until at last they disappeared beneath the waters of a new lake, into which Tusholi gratefully disappeared, rejoicing in the purity of her newly-formed abode.

Cosmology and creation

In ancient Nakh cosmology, the universe was created by the supreme god Dela. Earth, created in three years, was three times larger than the heavens and was propped up on gigantic bull horns. The realm of the Vainakh Gods lay above the clouds. Ishtar-Deela was the ruler of the subterranean world, Deeli-Malkhi. Deeli-Malkhi was larger than the human realm and took seven years to create. Nakhs believed that when the sun sets in the west it goes to the netherworld and rises out of it in the east. Deeli-Malkhi was not an evil realm of the dead or undead, but not far removed in morality from the upper world – even superior to it in some respects – most notably in its social structures. Unlike in certain other religions, there was no judgment in the afterlife. Dela-Malkh was the sun god playing a central role in religious celebrations. On December 25, Nakhs celebrated the Sun Festival in honour of the Sun God's birthday.^[86]

The names of stars and constellations were also connected to myths:

• Milky Way as the route of scattered straw (Chechen: Ča Taqina Tača)
• Great Bear as the seven brothers’ seven stars (Chechen: Vorx Vešin Vorx Seda) meets 7 sons of the god of the universe Tq'a. In the Ingush version of the legend Pkharmat, seven sons of Tq'a were punished by his wife Khimekhninen for help Magal, stealing fire from Tq'a. She lifted them up into the air, far from land that they have become the seven stars.
• Gemini (Chechen: Kovreģina Seda)
• Sirius, Betelgeuse and Procyon as Tripodstar (Chechen: Qokogseda)
• Orion as Evening star (Chechen: Märkaj Seda)
• Capricornus as Roofing towers (Chechen: Neģara Bjovnaš)
• Venus depending on daytime as sunset star (Chechen: Sadov Seda) and sunrise star (Chechen: Saxül Seda). The name of the planet is Dilbat

Genetics

A 2011 study by Oleg Balanovsky and a number of other geneticists showed that the

The Vainakh have been referred to by various names, including Durdzuks in medieval Arab, Georgian and Armenian ethnography.

Historical linguists, including Johanna Nichols, have connected ancestral Nakh languages and their distant relatives to a Neolithic migration from the Fertile Crescent.^[88][89]

Another view, not necessarily contradicting the previous one, posits a migration of Nakh into their present location in the North Caucasus during the

According to Amjad Jaimoukha, the mythological Gargareans, a group who migrated from eastern Asia Minor to the North Caucasus mentioned by Greek writer Strabo,^[100] are connected to the Nakh root gergara, meaning "kindred" in proto-Nakh.^[101] However, Jaimoukha's theory is unlikely as Strabo and other ancient Greek writers considered the Gargareans to be Greeks.^[102]

List of Nakh peoples

Contemporary

• Vainakh (Chechen-Ingush dialect continuum)
  • The
    Shafi'i
    school.
  • The
    Sunni Muslims and speak the Ingush language, which, according to some authors, is mutually intelligible with Chechen, despite popular misconceptions, and they are closely related.^[103] Their total population is estimated to be c. 1 million worldwide.^[80]
    • The Orstkhoy are a historical ethnoterritorial society (sub-group) among the Chechen and Ingush people. In the tradition of the Chechen ethno-hierarchy, it is considered one of the nine historical Chechen tukkhums, in the Ingush tradition as one of the seven historical Ingush shahars.^[104][105] Many sources refer to them as one of the most militant Vainakh tribe.^[106]
  • The
    Sunni Muslim, however, there are still remaining small pockets of Christian Kists in Pankisi, Tusheti and Kakheti
    .
• The
  Orthodox Christians
  .

Historical

The following is a list of historical or prehistoric peoples who have been proposed as speakers of Nakh languages.

Sophene

According to Georgian scholars I. A. Djavashvili and

Argishtis I of Urartu resettled many of its inhabitants to his newly built city of Erebuni

. However, Djavashvili's and Melikishvili's theory is not widely accepted.

Gargareans

Jaimoukha argued that the Vainakhs are descended from the

I. M. Diakonoff, V. N. Gamrekeli) supported the proposal that Gargarei is an earlier form of the Vainakh ethnonym. Jaimoukha notes that "Gargarean" is one of many Nakh root words - gergara, meaning, in fact, "kindred" in proto-Nakh.^[113]

If this is the case, it would make Gargarei virtually equivalent to the Georgian term Dzurdzuk (referring to the lake Durdukka in the South Caucasus, where they are thought to have migrated from, as noted by Strabo, before intermixing with the local population) which they applied to a Nakh people who had migrated north across the mountains to settle in modern Chechnya and Ingushetia.

Despite Jaimoukha's claims, Strabo suggests that the Gargareans were Aeolian Greeks and locates their homeland Gargara in Troad, in the far west of modern Turkey.^[114]

Tzanaria

The Tsanars were a people of East-Central Northern Georgia, living in an area around modern

Tsanaria was their state, and it distinguished itself by the decisive role it and its people played in fending off the Arab invasion of Georgia. Their language is thought by many historians (including Vladimir Minorsky and Amjad Jaimoukha) to be Nakh, based on placenames, geographic location, and other such evidence.^[115]

However, there is opposition to the theory that theirs was a Nakh language. Others claim they spoke a Sarmatian language like Ossetic. The Tsanars, too, eventually were assimilated within Georgiandom.

Ghlighvi

Ghlighvi has been a historical name for the Ingush, deriving from their ethnonym Ghalghaï. It was mentioned by Vakhushti of Kartli in 1745, a Georgian noble.^[116]

Dvals and Dvaleti

The Dvals were a historic people living in modern-day South Ossetia and some nearby regions, as well as the southern parts of North Ossetia (South and West of the Gligvs, South and East of the Malkh). They integrated themselves into the Georgian kingdom and produced a number of fine Georgian calligraphers and historians. They also produced an Orthodox saint: Saint Nicholas of Dvaleti. The language of the

Ossetic.^[121] Another theory posits that the Dvals were of Karvelian (Georgian) origin.^[122] Various evidence given to support the Nakh theory (Different scholars use different arguments.) includes the presence of Nakh placenames in former Dval territory,^[121] taken as evidence of Nakh–Svan contact, which probably would have indicated the Nakh nature of the Dvals or of people there before them,^[115] and the presence of a foreign-origin Dval clan among the Chechens.^[120]

The Dvals were assimilated by the Georgians and the Ossetians. It is thought that Dval did not become fully extinct until the 18th century, making the Dvals the most recent Nakh people known to have disappeared.

Malkhs

The Malkhs were a Nakh people,^[115] who were deemed to be the westernmost Nakh people, and made an alliance with the Greek Bosporus Kingdom.

Durdzuks and Durdzuketi

Durdzuk is a medieval ethnonym used mainly in Georgian, Armenian and Arabic sources in the 9th-18th centuries, in which most researchers identify the Durdzuks as the ancestors of modern Chechens and Ingush. Some researchers localize the Durdzuks in the mountainous Ingushetia and identify them with the Ingush,^{[123][124][125][126]} others believe that during the Middle Ages the population of Chechnya was known to the South Caucasian peoples under the name "Durdzuks" (or "Dzurdzuks"),^[127] and the population of Ingushetia under the names "Gligvi"^{[128][129][130]} The Georgian historian V. N. Gamrekeli claims that "Durdzuk" is definitely and, with all its references, uniformly localized, between Didoet-Dagestan in the east and the gorge of the Terek River, in the west.^[131]

The Durdzuks constructed numerous kingdoms, notably Durdzuketi; and they were noted for their exceptionally fierce devotion to freedom and their ability to resist invaders, ranging from the Arabs to the Scythians to Turkic peoples to the Mongolian invaders. They seemed also to have been employed as mercenaries by various parties. They had a written language using Georgian script (It is not known whether they spoke that language however.), but most of these writings have been lost, with only a few pieces surviving. After the 14th-century Second Mongol Invasion of Durdzuketi and the destruction wrought by the two invasions (including, as Amjad Jaimoukha notes, the destruction of their memory of their past^[115]), they radically changed their culture.

Isadiks

The Isadiks were an ancient Nakh people of the North Caucasus who were farmers.^[132] They were probably undone by Scythian invaders. A remnant of them may have been absorbed by the Vainakh, as their name can now be seen in the Chechen teip Sadoy.

Khamekits

The Khamekits were another ancient Nakh people of the North Caucasus who were farmers.^[133] They were also probably undone by Scythian invaders. A remnant of them may have been absorbed by the Vainakh, as their name may now be reflected in the Ingush teip Khamki.

See also

• Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush
• Peoples of the Caucasus
• Northeast Caucasian languages
• Nakh languages
• Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of the Caucasus
• List of Chechen people

References

1. ^ Malsagov, Zaurbek (1928). КУЛЬТУРНАЯ РАБОТА В ЧЕЧНЕ И ИНГУШИИ В СВЯЗИ С УНИФИКАЦИЕЙ АЛФАВИТОВ. Vladikavkaz: Serdalo. pp. 3–11.
2. ^ Schnirelmann, Victor (2016). Be Alans. Intellectuals and Politics in the North Caucasus in the 20th Century. -M.: New literary review. p. 279. Но после их объединения в 1934 г. в единую Чечено-Ингушскую автономную область (Чечено-Ингушская АССР с 1936 г.) власти всеми силами пытались обеспечить слияние чеченцев и ингушей в единый народ, для которого было создано новое название «вейнахи/вайнахи». В 1960-1980-х гг. эта идентичность активно внедрялась в сознание чеченцев и ингушей и постепенно приобретала все большую популярность.
3. ^ Гюльденштедт 2002, p. 238.
4. ^ Klaproth, Julius Heinrich (1812). Reise in den Kaukasus und nach Georgien unter nommen in den Jahren 1807 and 1808 [Journeys to the Caucasus and Georgia made in 1807 and 1808] (in German). Halle und Berlin: In den Buchhandlungen des Hallischen Waisenhauses. p. 239.
5. ^ Берже, А.П (1859). Чечня и Чеченцы. Тифлис. pp. 65–66. Вот исчисление всех племен, на которые принято делить Чеченцев. В строгом же смысле деление это не имеет основания. Самим Чеченцам оно совершенно неизвестно. Они сами себя называют Нахче, т.е. "народ" и это относится до всего народа, говорящего на Чеченском языке и его наречиях. Упомянутые же названия им были даны или от аулов, как Цори, Галгай, Шатой и др., или от рек и гор, как Мичиковцы и Качкалыки. Весьма вероятно, что рано или поздно все или большая часть приведенных нами имен исчезнут и Чеченцы удержат за собою одно общее наименование.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
6. ^ Услар, П.К. (1888). Этнография Кавказа. Языкознание. Ч. II. Чеченский язык. Тифлис. Предлагаемая азбука составлена для языка народа, который сам себя назвал "нахчуй" или "нахчий" (в единственном числе – "нахчуо"), а у нас называемо чеченцами или кистинцами (последнее название грузинское). Язык нахчуй дробится на множество наречий, которые возникли частью по уединенному положению некоторых обществ, частью под влиянием языков соседних народов, осетин, и в особенности кумыков» [...] язык нахчуй демонстрирует «замечательное характерное единство» за исключением диалекта джераховцев, которые говорят весьма измененным наречием.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ Potto, Vasily (1887). Кавказская война в отдельных очерках, эпизодах, легендах и биографиях. pp. 63–64. Чеченцев обыкновенно делят на множество групп, или обществ, давая им имя от рек и гор, на которых они обитали, или от значительных аулов, обнаруживающих влияние на другие. Таковы алдинцы, атагинцы, назрановцы, карабулаки, джерахи, галгаевцы, мичиковцы, качкалыковцы, ичкеринцы, ауховцы и прочие, и прочие. Но это разделение чеченского народа на множество отдельных родов сделано, однако же, русскими и, в строгом смысле, имеет значение только для них же. Местным жителям оно совершенно неизвестно. Чеченцы сами себя называют нахче, то есть народ, и название это относится одинаково ко всем племенам и поколениям, говорящим на чеченском языке и его наречиях.
8. ^ Вейденбаум, Е. Г. (1888). Путеводитель по Кавказу. Тифлис. p. 70. В старинных русских дипломатических актах, относящихся к 16−17 столетиям, упоминается в горах по Тереку народ мичкизы. Впоследствии, когда русские войска побывали за Тереком, появились названия чеченцев и кистов, наконец, при более близком знакомстве с горцами восточной половины северного склона Кавказского хребта, мы узнали о существовании галгаев, глигвов, ингушей, карабулаков, назрановцев, ичкеринцев, ауховцев и много других народов. После лингвистических исследований оказалось, что все они составляют одно племя или народ, который сам себя называет нахчий, у нас же известен теперь под именем чеченцев. Bcе же приведенные выше названия означают или родовые подразделения этого народа, или заимствованы нами от названий селений (напр. назрановцы и чеченцы) и местностей (ауховцы, ичкеринцы), или же, наконец, взяты у соседних народов{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
9. ^ Ган, К. Ф. (1897). Путешествие в страну пшавов, хевсур, кистин и ингушей. Кавказский вестник, № 6. В Чечне живут чеченцы, число которых по переписи 1897 года простирается до 283 421 лиц обоего пола. Имя свое получили они от разрушенного большого аула Чечень, расположенного в нижнем течении Аргуна. Русские делили их на 20 различных племен, как-то: назрановцев, кистин, галгаев, цоринов, шатойцев, шароецев, чабирлойцев, ичкеринцев, качкаликов и т. д. Народ сам не знает этих названий. Они сами называют себя "нахче", т.е. народ»
10. ^ Дубровин, Н. Ф. (1871). История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе. Том I, Книга 1. pp. 368–369.
11. ^ Лаудаев, Умалат (1872). Сборник сведений о кавказских горцах Вып. VI. Тифлис.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
12. ISBN 978-5-9208-0307-8
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13. ^ ^{a b} ""Вайнахи и аланы" Руслан Арсанукаев о происхождении названий и самоназваний Чеченцев и Ингушей".
14. ^ "Предание о происхождении чеченцев".
15. ^ Ахмад Сулейманов. «Топонимия Чечено-Ингушетии.» Грозный, 1978.
16. ISBN 978-9941-10-439-8
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17. ^ Алироев, И. Ю. Язык, история и культура вайнахов.
18. ^ Шавлаева, Тамара (2009). Из истории развития шерстяного промысла чеченцев в XIX – начале XX в.
19. ^ Берже, А.П (1859). Чечня и Чеченцы. Тифлис. p. 134.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
20. ^ Dzhanashvili, Мосэ (1897). Известия груз. летописей и историков о Сев. Кавказе и России. Tbilisi.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
21. ^ Баширов, Саламбек (2018). Этническая история Терско-Сулакского междуречья (на примере семьи Башир-шейха Аксайского). Grozny.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
22. ^ Pallas, Peter Simon (1802). Travels through the southern provinces of the Russian Empire, in the years 1793 and 1794. London.
23. ^ Klaproth, Julius (1811). Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia, performed in the years 1807 and 1808, by command of the Russian government.
24. ^ Bronevsky, Semyon (1823). News in the Caucasus. Tbilisi.
25. ^ Salgiriev, A.M (2019). "Chronicle of the exodus of Chechens from Nakhchuvan (translation and commentary)". Tallam. 2: 33–35.
26. ^ Berge, Adolph (1859). Chechnya and Chechens. Tbilisi.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
27. ^ Dosov, Kedi (1862). Nakhchoyn Juz.
28. ^ Н.Ф, Дубровин (1871). История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе. Том I, Книга 1. СПб. pp. 368–369.
29. ^ Laudaev, Umalat (1872). Чеченское племя. Tbilisi: Сборник сведений о кавказских горцах.
30. ^ Patkanian, Kerovbe (1877). Armenian geography of the 7th century AD.
31. ^ Гюльденштедт 2002, p. 37.
32. ^ Pallas 1811, p. 176.
33. ^ Klaproth 1814, pp. 5, 9, 57.
34. ^ Броневский 1823, p. 153:

    "Кисты сами себя называютъ поперемѣнно Кисты, Галга, Ингуши, и одно названiе вмѣсто другаго употребляютъ..."

35. ^ Робакидзе 1968, pp. 15, 27, 204.
36. ^ Крупнов 1971, p. 34.
37. ^ Крупнов 1971, p. 26.
38. ^ Латышев 1947, pp. 222, 281.
39. ^ Anchabadze 2009, p. 33.
40. ^ Mayor 2016, p. 361.
41. ^ Яновский 1846, p. 201.
42. ^ Кох 1842, p. 489.
43. ^ Klaproth 1814, p. 643.
44. ^ Бутков 1869, p. 10.
45. ^ Wahl 1875, p. 239.
46. ^ Бердзенешвили et al. 1962, p. 25.
47. ^ Джанашвили 1897, p. 31.
48. ^ Волкова 1973, p. 158.
49. ^ Кушева 1963, p. 65.
50. ^ Волкова 1973, pp. 154–155.
51. ^ Белокуров 1889, pp. 222, 456.
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53. ^ Чикобава 2010, pp. 30–31.
54. ^ ჯავახიშვილი 1937, p. 97: "ჩაჩნური, ანუ ნახჭოური, ინგუშური, ანუ ქისტური ჩრდილოეთს კავკასიაში და წოვური, ანუ ბაცბური საქართველოში, თუშეთის თეშში. ენათა შეორე ცალკეულ ჯგუფს შეადგენენ, რომელსაც ამჟამად აგრეთვე თავისი ცალკეული ზოგადი სახელი არ მოეპოება. ძველად, ბერძენთა და რომალითა იეოგრაფები იმიერკავკასიის შუა და აღმოსავლეთის ნაწილის მიწა-წყალზე მობინადრედ გელ-ებსა და ლეგ-ებს ასახელებდენ. გელ-ების სახელი უდრის იქაურსი და თუშურს თანამედროვე ღალღას, ლეგ-ებისა კი ქართულს ლეკებს პირველი სახელის ქართ. შესატყვისობა ღილღვი (მხ. რ.) და ლილივებია (მრ. რ.), რომელიც ძველს თუშურ ხალხურ ლექსებში ხშირად გვხვდება. სხვაგან და ჩვეულებრივ საქართველოში კი მათ აღსანიშნივად ღლილვია მიღებული. რაკი ზემოაღნიშნული სამი ენის ზოგადი სახელი არ არსებობს, ასეთი სახელი კი საჭიროა, ამიტომ, ხელოვნურად შეთხზულის მაგოერ, აქაც ისევ ძველად არსებული ასეთი სახელის გამოყენება სჯობია, სწორედ ამ მოსაზრებით ვხელმძღვანელობ, რომ ენათა მეორე ჯგუფის. — ჩაჩნურიიხა, ქისტურისა და წოვური ენების, — ზოგად სახელად ისევ ღილღღურის შემოღებას ვრჩეობ".
55. ^ Волкова Н. Г. Ук. соч., page 135.
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57. ^ Ахмадов, Шарпудин Бачуевич (2002). Чечня и Ингушетия в XVIII – начале XIX века. Elista: "Джангар", АПП. p. 447.
58. ^ Хизриев X. А. Чечено-Ингушетия в период феодальной раздроб- ленности (ХШ-XV вв.). История Чечено-Ингушетии, 7 8 кл., Грозный, 1991, page. 41.
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    "Ингуши трудолюбивы, особенно женщины. Они не только хлопочут по хозяйству, но также шьют одежду для своих мужей, ходят в лес за дровами и несут этот тяжелый груз верст 10 через горные хребты. Женщины работают на мельницах, делают ковры и войлочные одеяла. Они также изготовляют тонкую шерстяную ткань, предназначаемую для тцуки, которая служит одеждой для мужчин, женщин и детей."

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92. ^ Diakonoff, Igor M. (1995). "Long-Range Linguistic Relations: Cultural Transmission or Consanguinity?" (PDF). Mother Tongue. 24: 34–40.
93. ^ Ivanov, Vyacheslav V. (1999). "Comparative Notes on Hurro-Urartian, Northern Caucasian and Indo-European" (PDF). UCLA Indo-European Studies. 1: 147–264.
94. ^ Greppin, John A.C. (2008). "The Urartian substratum in Armenian" (PDF). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. 2 (2): 134–137.
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96. ^ Fournet, Arnaud (2013). "About the vocalic system of Armenian words of substratic origins". Archiv Orientální. 1.
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98. ^ Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Gudava, T.E. (1998). "Caucasian Languages". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
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110. ^ Strabo, Geography, Bk. 11, Ch. 5, Sec. 1
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112. ^ Латышев В. В. Известия древних писателей греческих и латинских о Скифии и Кавказе, т. 1, Греческие писатели, СПб, 1890; т.2, Латинские писатели, вып.1, СПб, 1904, вып.2, СПб, 1906; Крупнов Е. И. Ук.соч., page.25.
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• Vainakh information portal