Naltrexone
Clinical data | |
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Pronunciation | /ˌnælˈtrɛksoʊn/ |
Trade names | Revia, Vivitrol, Depade, others |
Other names | EN-1639A; UM-792; ALKS-6428; N-cyclopropylmethylnoroxymorphone; N-cyclopropylmethyl-14-hydroxydihydromorphinone; 17-(cyclopropylmethyl)-4,5α-epoxy-3,14-dihydroxymorphinan-6-one |
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
MedlinePlus | a685041 |
License data |
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Pregnancy category |
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Routes of administration | By mouth, intramuscular injection, subcutaneous implant |
ATC code | |
Legal status | |
Legal status | |
Pharmacokinetic data | |
Bioavailability | 5–60%[6][7] |
Protein binding | 20%[6][3] |
Metabolism | Liver (non-CYP450)[11] |
Metabolites | 6β-Naltrexol, others[6] |
Onset of action | 30 minutes[8] |
Elimination half-life | Oral (Revia):[3] • Naltrexone: 4 hours • 6β-Naltrexol: 13 hours Oral (Contrave):[4] • Naltrexone: 5 hours IM (Vivitrol):[5] • Naltrexone: 5–10 days • 6β-Naltrexol: 5–10 days |
Duration of action | >72 hours[6][9][10] |
Excretion | Urine[3] |
Identifiers | |
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JSmol) | |
Melting point | 169 °C (336 °F) |
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Naltrexone, sold under the brand name Revia among others, is a
Naltrexone was first made in 1965 and was approved for medical use in the United States in 1984.[8][14] Naltrexone, as naltrexone/bupropion (brand name Contrave), is also used to treat obesity.[15] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[16] In 2021, it was the 254th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1 million prescriptions.[17][18]
Medical uses
Alcohol use disorder
Naltrexone has been best studied as a treatment for alcoholism.[12] Naltrexone has been shown to decrease the quantity and frequency of ethanol consumption by reducing the dopamine release from the brain after consuming alcohol.[19][20][21] It does not appear to change the percentage of people drinking.[22] Its overall benefit has been described as "modest".[23][19][24][25]
Acamprosate may work better than naltrexone for eliminating alcohol abuse, while naltrexone may decrease the desire for alcohol to a greater extent.[26]
A method pioneered by scientist John David Sinclair (dubbed commercially the “Sinclair Method”) advocates for “pharmacological extinction” of problem drinking behavior by administering naltrexone alongside controlled alcohol consumption. In effect, he argues naltrexone induced opiate antagonism sufficiently disrupts reflexive reward mechanisms inherent in the consumption of alcohol and, given enough repetition, will disassociate positive associations formerly made with the consumption of alcohol. The Sinclair Method has a clinically proven success rate of 78%.[27]
Opioid use
Long-acting injectable naltrexone (under the brand name Vivitrol) is an opioid receptor antagonist, blocking the effects of heroin and other opioids, and decreases
A drawback of injectable naltrexone is that it requires patients with opioid use disorder and current physiological dependence to be fully withdrawn before it is initiated to avoid a precipitated opioid withdrawal that may be quite severe. In contrast, initiation of buprenorphine only requires delay of the first dose until the patient begins to manifest at least mild opioid withdrawal symptoms.[32] Among patients able to successfully initiate injectable naltrexone, long-term remission rates were similar to those seen in clinical buprenorphine/naloxone administration.[33]
Consequence of relapse when weighting best course of treatment for opiate use disorder remains a concern. Methadone and buprenorphine administration maintains greater drug tolerance while naltrexone allows tolerance to fade, leading to higher instances of overdose in people who relapse and thus higher mortality. World Health Organization guidelines state that most patients should be advised to use opioid agonists (e.g., methadone or buprenorphine) rather than opioid antagonists like naltrexone, citing evidence of superiority in reducing mortality and retaining patients in care.[34]
A 2011 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effect of naltrexone taken by mouth in opioid dependence.[35] While some do well with this formulation, it must be taken daily, and a person whose cravings become overwhelming can obtain opioid intoxication simply by skipping a dose. Due to this issue, the usefulness of oral naltrexone in opioid use disorders is limited by the low retention in treatment. Naltrexone by mouth remains an ideal treatment for a small number of people with opioid use, usually those with a stable social situation and motivation. With additional contingency management support, naltrexone may be effective in a broader population.[36]
Others
Unlike varenicline (brand name Chantix), naltrexone is not useful for quitting smoking.[37] Naltrexone has also been under investigation for reducing behavioral addictions such as gambling or kleptomania as well as compulsive sexual behaviors in both offenders and non-offenders (e.g. compulsive porn viewing and masturbation). The results were promising. In one study, the majority of sexual offenders reported a strong reduction in sexual urges and fantasies which reverted to baseline once the medication was discontinued. Case reports have also shown cessation of gambling and other compulsive behaviors, for as long as the medication was taken.[38][39]
When taken at much smaller doses, a regimen known as
Available forms
Naltrexone is available and most commonly used in the form of an oral tablet (50 mg).[42] Vivitrol, a naltrexone formulation for depot injection containing 380 mg of the medication per vial, is also available.[42][43] Additionally, naltrexone subcutaneous implants that are surgically implanted are available.[44] While these are manufactured in Australia, they are not authorized for use within Australia, but only for export.[45] By 2009, naltrexone implants showed superior efficacy in the treatment of heroin dependence when compared to the oral form.[46]
Contraindications
Naltrexone should not be used by persons with acute hepatitis or liver failure, or those with recent opioid use (typically 7–10 days).
Side effects
The most common side effects reported with naltrexone are
The side effects of naltrexone by incidence are as follows:[3]
- Greater than 10%:
- Less than 10%:
- A variety of other adverse events have also been reported with less than 1% incidence.[3]
Opioid withdrawal
Naltrexone should not be started until several (typically 7–10) days of abstinence from opioids have been achieved. This is due to the risk of acute opioid withdrawal if naltrexone is taken, as naltrexone will displace most opioids from their receptors. The time of abstinence may be shorter than 7 days, depending on the half-life of the specific opioid taken. Some physicians use a naloxone challenge to determine whether an individual has any opioids remaining. The challenge involves giving a test dose of naloxone and monitoring for opioid withdrawal. If withdrawal occurs, naltrexone should not be started.[47]
Adverse effects
Whether naltrexone causes
- Naltrexone itself produces little or no psychoactive effect in normal research volunteers even at high doses, which is remarkable given that the endogenous opioid system is important in normal hedonic functioning. Because endogenous opioids are involved in the brain reward system, it would be reasonable to hypothesize that naltrexone might produce anhedonic or dysphoric effects. Although some evidence from small, early trials suggested that patients with a history of opiate dependence might be susceptible to dysphoric effects in response to naltrexone (Crowley et al. 1985; Hollister et al. 1981), reports of such effects have been inconsistent. Most large clinical studies of recovering opioid-dependent individuals have not found naltrexone to have an adverse effect on mood (Greenstein et al. 1984; Malcolm et al. 1987; Miotto et al. 2002; Shufman et al. 1994). Some studies have actually found improvements in mood during the course of treatment with naltrexone (Miotto et al. 1997; Rawlins and Randall 1976).
Based on available evidence, naltrexone seems to have minimal untoward effects in the aforementioned areas, at least with long-term therapy.
Naltrexone may also initially produce opioid withdrawal-like symptoms in a small subset of people not dependent on opioids:[58]
- The side-effect profile [of naltrexone], at least on the recommended dose of 50 mg per day, is generally benign, although 5 to 10 percent of detoxified opioid addicts experience immediate, intolerable levels of withdrawal-like effects including agitation, anxiety, insomnia, light-headedness, sweating, dysphoria, and nausea. Most patients on naltrexone experience few or no symptoms after the first 1 to 2 weeks of treatment; for a substantial minority (20 to 30 percent) protracted discomfort is experienced.
Persisting affective distress related to naltrexone may account for individuals taking the drug who
Naltrexone has been reported to reduce feelings of
Liver damage
Naltrexone has been reported to cause
Overdose
No
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Opioid receptor blockade
Ki ) |
Ratios | Refs | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
MOR |
KOR |
DOR |
MOR:KOR:DOR | |
1.0 nM | 3.9 nM | 149 nM | 1:4:149 | [70] |
0.0825 nM | 0.509 nM | 8.02 nM | 1:6:97 | [71] |
0.2 nM | 0.4 nM | 10.8 nM | 1:2:54 | [72][73] |
0.23 nM | 0.25 nM | 38 nM | 1:1.1:165 | [74][57] |
0.62 nM | 1.88 nM | 12.3 nM | 1:3:20 | [75][76] |
0.11 nM | 0.19 nM | 60 nM | 1:1.7:545 | [77][78][79] |
Naltrexone and its
By itself, naltrexone acts as an antagonist or weak partial agonist of the opioid receptors.
The half-life of occupancy of the brain MOR and duration of clinical effect of naltrexone are much longer than suggested by its
Naltrexone blocks the effects of MOR agonists like
The opioid receptors are involved in
Blockade of MORs is thought to be the mechanism of action of naltrexone in the management of opioid dependence—it reversibly blocks or attenuates the effects of opioids. It is also thought to be involved in the effectiveness of naltrexone in alcohol dependence by reducing the euphoric effects of alcohol. The role of KOR modulation by naltrexone in its effectiveness for alcohol dependence is unclear but this action may also be involved based on theory and animal studies.[97][98]
Other activities
In addition to the
Pharmacokinetics
The
The plasma protein binding of naltrexone is about 20% over a naltrexone concentration range of 0.1 to 500 μg/L.[6][3] Its apparent volume of distribution at 100 mg orally is 16.1 L/kg after a single dose and 14.2 L/kg with repeated doses.[6]
Naltrexone is
The
Naltrexone and its metabolites are excreted in urine.[3]
Pharmacogenetics
Tentative evidence suggests that family history and presence of the Asn40Asp polymorphism predicts naltrexone being effective.[111][24]
Chemistry
Naltrexone, also known as N-cyclopropylmethylnoroxymorphone, is a
Analogues
The closely related medication,
History
Naltrexone was first
Society and culture
Generic names
Naltrexone is the
Brand names
Naltrexone is or has been sold under a variety of brand names, including Adepend, Antaxone, Celupan, Depade, Nalorex, Narcoral, Nemexin, Nodict, Revia, Trexan, Vivitrex, and Vivitrol.[116][117][118][119] It is also marketed in combination with bupropion (naltrexone/bupropion) as Contrave,[120] and was marketed with morphine (morphine/naltrexone) as Embeda.[119][121] A combination of naltrexone with buprenorphine (buprenorphine/naltrexone) has been developed, but has not been marketed.[122]
Controversies
The FDA authorized use of injectable naltrexone (Vivitrol) for opioid addiction using a single study[123] that was led by Evgeny Krupitsky at Bekhterev Research Psychoneurological Institute, St Petersburg State Pavlov Medical University, St Petersburg, Russia,[124] a country where opioid agonists such as methadone and buprenorphine are not available. The study was a "double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized", 24-week trial running "from July 3, 2008, through October 5, 2009" with "250 patients with opioid dependence disorder" at "13 clinical sites in Russia" on the use of injectable naltrexone (XR-NTX) for opioid dependence. The study was funded by the Boston-based biotech Alkermes firm which produces and markets naltrexone in the United States. Critics charged that the study violated ethical guidelines, since it compared the formulation of naltrexone not to the best available, evidence-based treatment (methadone or buprenorphine), but to a placebo. Further, the trial did not follow patients who dropped out of the trial to evaluate subsequent risk of fatal overdose, a major health concern .[125] Subsequent trials in Norway and the US did compare injectable naltrexone to buprenorphine and found them to be similar in outcomes for patients willing to undergo the withdrawal symptoms required prior to naltrexone administration.[126] Nearly 30% of patients in the US trial did not complete induction.[33] In real world settings, a review of more than 40,000 patient records found that while methadone and buprenorphine reduced risk of fatal overdose, naltrexone administration showed no greater effect on overdose or subsequent emergency care than counseling alone.[30]
Despite these findings, naltrexone's manufacturer and some health authorities have promoted the medicine as superior to methadone and buprenorphine since it is not an opioid and does not induce dependence. The manufacturer has also marketed directly to law enforcement and criminal justice officials, spending millions of dollars on lobbying and providing thousands of free doses to jails and prisons.[127] The technique has been successful, with the criminal justice system in 43 states now incorporating long-acting naltrexone. Many do this through Vivitrol courts that offer only this option, leading some to characterize this as "an offer that cannot be refused."[128][129] The company's marketing techiques have led to a Congressional investigation,[130] and warning from the FDA about failure to adequately state risks of fatal overdose to patients receiving the medicine.[131]
In May 2017, United States Secretary of Health and Human Services Tom Price praised [Vivitrol] as the future of opioid addiction treatment after visiting the company's plant in Ohio.[127] His remarks set off sharp criticism with almost 700 experts in the field of substance use submitting a letter to Price cautioning him about Vivitrol's "marketing tactics" and warning him that his comments "ignore widely accepted science".[132] The experts pointed out that Vivitrol's competitors, buprenorphine and methadone, are "less expensive", "more widely used", and have been "rigorously studied". Price had claimed that buprenorphine and methadone were "simply substitute[s]" for "illicit drugs"[127] whereas according to the letter, "the substantial body of research evidence supporting these treatments is summarized in guidance from within your own agency, including the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, the US Surgeon General, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Buprenorphine and methadone have been demonstrated to be highly effective in managing the core symptoms of opioid use disorder, reducing the risk of relapse and fatal overdose, and encouraging long-term recovery."[132]
Film
Four Good Days is a 2020 film about the four days a drug addict woman has to stay sober to get a shot of naltrexone in a detox facility.
Research
Depersonalization
Naltrexone is sometimes used in the treatment of dissociative symptoms such as depersonalization and derealization.[134][135] Some studies suggest it might help.[136] Other small, preliminary studies have also shown benefit.[134][135] Blockade of the KOR by naltrexone and naloxone is thought to be responsible for their effectiveness in ameliorating depersonalization and derealization.[134][135] Since these drugs are less efficacious in blocking the KOR relative to the MOR, higher doses than typically used seem to be necessary.[134][135]
Low-dose naltrexone
Naltrexone has been used off-label at low doses for diseases not related to chemical dependency or intoxication, such as multiple sclerosis.[137] Evidence for recommending low-dose naltrexone is lacking.[138][139] This treatment has received attention on the Internet.[140] In 2022, four studies (in a few hundred patients) were conducted on naltrexone for long COVID.[141]
Self-injury
One study suggests that self-injurious behaviors present in persons with developmental disabilities (including autism) can sometimes be remedied with naltrexone.[142] In these cases, the self-injury is believed to be done to release
Behavioral disorders
Some indications exist that naltrexone might be beneficial in the treatment of impulse-control disorders such as kleptomania, compulsive gambling, or trichotillomania (compulsive hair pulling), but evidence of its effectiveness for gambling is conflicting.[144][145][146] A 2008 case study reported successful use of naltrexone in suppressing and treating an internet pornography addiction.[147]
Interferon alpha
Naltrexone is effective in suppressing the
Critical addiction studies
Some historians and sociologists have suggested that the meanings and uses attributed to anti-craving medicine, such as naltrexone, is context-dependent.[150] Studies have suggested the use of naltrexone in drug courts or healthcare rehabs is a form of "post-social control,"[151] or "post-disciplinary control,"[152] whereby control strategies for managing offenders and addicts shift from imprisonment and supervision toward more direct control over biological processes.
Sexual addiction
Small studies have shown a reduction of sexual addiction and problematic sexual behaviours from naltrexone.[153][154]
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