Name of Canada

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The Dauphin Map of Canada, c. 1543, showing Cartier's discoveries. Newfoundland is near the upper right; Florida and the Bahamas are at lower left

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the name of

Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[2]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[3] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[4]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[5] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".[6] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.[7][8]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[9] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[10]

Etymology

A map of North America from 1565, one of the first to include the name "Canada" (top right).

The name Canada is now generally accepted as originating from the

Bref récit et succincte narration de la navigation faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI.[11]

Although the

St. Lawrence Valley settlements such as Stadacona (modern-day Quebec City) and Hochelaga (modern-day Montreal) in the 16th century, is now extinct, it was closely related to other dialects of the Iroquoian languages, such as the Oneida and Mohawk languages. Related cognates meaning 'town' include nekantaa, ganataje, and iennekanandaa in the Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca languages respectively.[11] Prior to archeological confirmation that the St. Lawrence Iroquois were a separate people from the Mohawk, most sources specifically linked the name's origin to the Mohawk word instead of the Laurentian one.[14]

A 1934 three-cent stamp commemorated the four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of Canada by the French navigator, Jacques Cartier.

A widespread perception in Canadian folklore is that Cartier misunderstood the term "Canada" as the existing proper name of the Iroquois people's entire territory rather than the generic class noun for a town or village. For instance, the Historica Canada's Heritage Minute episode devoted to Cartier's landing at Hochelaga is scripted as having Cartier believe that "Kanata" or "Canada" was the established name of the entire country.[15] This is not supported by Cartier's own writings, however—in Bref récit, Cartier fully understands the actual meaning of the word ("They call a town Canada"),[16] and his earliest name for the wider territory is "le pays des Canadas"[citation needed] ('country of Canadas',[17][failed verification] 'land of Canadas', or 'land of villages').

While the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoian origin for the name Canada is now widely accepted, other theories have been put forth in the past.

Iberian origin theory

The most common alternative theory suggested that the name originated when

Spanish explorers, having explored the northern part of the continent and unable to find gold and silver, wrote cá nada ('nothing here' in Portuguese), acá nada, aqui nada or el cabo de nada ('Cape Nothing' in Spanish) on that part of their maps.[18] An alternative explanation favoured by philologist Marshall Elliott linked the name to the Spanish word cañada, meaning 'glen' or 'valley'.[19][20]

The earliest iterations of the Spanish "nothing here" theory stated that the explorers made the declaration upon visiting the

Bay of Chaleur,[21]
while later versions left out any identifying geographic detail.

The known Portuguese presence in modern Canadian territory, meanwhile, was in Newfoundland and Labrador. Neither region is located anywhere near Iroquoian territory, and the name Canada does not appear on any Spanish or Portuguese maps of the North American coast that predate Cartier's visit.[20] No name for the Bay of Chaleur is attested at all in Spanish sources from that period, while the only name for Newfoundland attested in Portuguese sources is Terra Nova do Bacalhau, after the region's plentiful cod.

In most versions of the Iberian origin theory, the Spanish or Portuguese passed their name on to the Iroquois, who rapidly adopted it in place of their own prior word for a village;[20] however, no historical evidence for any such Iberian-Iroquoian interaction has ever actually been found.[20] Elliott's "valley" theory, conversely, was that the Spanish gave their name for the area directly to Jacques Cartier, who then entirely ignored or passed over the virtually identical Iroquoian word.[20] According to Elliott, Cartier never explicitly stated that there was a direct connection between canada or kanata as the Iroquoian word for 'village' and Canada as the new name of the entire territory, and never accounted for the spelling difference between kanata and Canada—and thus the Spanish etymology had to be favoured because the spellings matched.[20] Notably, Cartier never wrote of having any awareness of any preexisting Spanish or Portuguese name for the region either, meaning that Elliott's allegation that the kanata derivation was not adequately supported by Cartier's own writing on the matter was also true of his own preferred theory.

Franciscan priest André Thevet claimed that the word derived from segnada Canada, an answer reportedly given by Spaniards in the St. Lawrence Valley area when asked what their purpose was; according to Thevet, the phrase meant that they were seeking land[22] or that they were hunting.[23] These words do not actually exist in Spanish, however.

Minor or humorous theories

British philologist B. Davies surmised that by the same process which initially saw the

Kannada ethnic group;[24] however, this theory has attracted no significant support from other academics.[11]

Additional theories have attributed the name "Canada" to: a word in an unspecified indigenous language for 'mouth of the country' in reference to the

war cry of "kan-na-dun, Kunatun";[23] a shared Cree and Innu word, p'konata, which purportedly meant 'without a plan' or 'I don't know';[26] a short-lived French colony purportedly established by a settler whose surname was Cane;[11] Jacques Cartier's description elsewhere in his writings of Labrador as "the land God gave to Cain;" or, to a claim that the early French habitants demanded a "can a day" of spruce beer from the local intendant[11] (a claim easily debunked by the facts that the habitants would have been speaking French, not English, and that canning
did not exist until the 19th century).

In their 1983 book The Anglo Guide to Survival in Québec, humourists Josh Freed and Jon Kalina tied the Iberian origin theory to the phrase nada mas caca ('nothing but shit'). No historian or linguist has ever analyzed this explanation as anything more than an obvious joke.[27]

Canadian

The demonym "Canadien" or "Canadian" once referred exclusively to the indigenous groups who were native to the territory.[20] Its use was extended over time to the French settlers of New France, and later the English settlers of Upper Canada.[20]

Colonial usage

New France

European explorer

Saint Lawrence River, which he called rivière de Canada during his second voyage in 1535.[28][29] By the mid-1500s, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.[30]

Canada soon after became the name of a colony in New France that stretched along the St. Lawrence River.[30][31] The terms "Canada" and "New France" were often used interchangeably during the colonial period.[30]

British North America

An 1851 Province of Canada postage stamp, the 3 pence beaver ("Threepenny Beaver")

After the

Province of Quebec. Following the American Revolution and the influx of United Empire Loyalists into Quebec, the colony was split on 26 December 1791 into Upper and Lower Canada, sometime being collectively known as "The Canadas", the first time that the name "Canada" was used officially in the British regime.[32]

Some reports from the 1840s suggest that in that era, the word "Canada" was commonly pronounced "Kaugh-na-daugh" rather than its more contemporary pronunciation.[20]

Upper and Lower Canada were merged into one colony, the

Queen Victoria
, and became a national capital.

Selection of the name Canada

Proclamation announcing the formation of one Dominion, under the name of CANADA, 1867

At the conferences held in London to determine the form of confederation that would unite the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), the province of New Brunswick, and the province of Nova Scotia, a delegate from either Nova Scotia or New Brunswick proposed the name Canada in February 1867, and it was unanimously accepted by the other delegates. There appears to have been little discussion,[33] though other names were suggested.

Other proposed names

While the provinces' delegates spent little time, if any, in settling on Canada as the name for the new country, others proposed a variety of other names:[34][11]

Thomas D'Arcy McGee commented, "Now I would ask any honourable member of the House how he would feel if he woke up some fine morning and found himself, instead of a Canadian, a Tuponian or a Hochelegander?".[36]

Kingdom and Dominion

"Dominion of Canada" redirects here. For other uses, see Dominion of Canada (disambiguation).

Working towards the Confederation of Canada, Canada's founders deliberated on the official title for their new country, primarily between the "Kingdom of Canada" or the "Dominion of Canada."[37][38]

In J. S. Ewart's two volume work, The Kingdom Papers,[39][40] it is noted that the following names were considered for the union of British North America: "The United Colony of Canada", "the United Provinces of Canada", and "the Federated Provinces of Canada".[41] Ewart was also an ardent advocate for the formation of "the Republic of Canada", a position which was rarely expressed in those times.[42]

Kingdom of Canada

See also: Monarchy of Canada

During the

British monarchy," in connection with the British Empire. He advocated, in the fourth Canadian draft of the British North America Act (BNA Act), the name "Kingdom of Canada,"[37]
in the text is said:

The word 'Parliament' shall mean the Legislature or Parliament of the Kingdom of Canada.
The word 'Kingdom' shall mean and comprehend the United Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.

The words '

Privy Council' shall mean such persons as may from time to time be appointed, by the Governor General, and sworn to aid and advise in the Government of the Kingdom.[43]

Canada's founders, led by Macdonald, wished their new nation to be called the Kingdom of Canada in order to "fix the monarchical basis of the constitution."[44] The governor general at the time, The 4th Viscount Monck, supported the move to designate Canada a kingdom;[45] however, officials at the Colonial Office in London opposed this potentially "premature" and "pretentious" reference for a new country. They were also wary of antagonizing the United States, which had emerged from its Civil War as a formidable military power with unsettled grievances because British interests had sold ships to the Confederacy despite a blockade, and thus opposed the use of terms such as kingdom or empire to describe the new country.[46]

Adoption of Dominion

Map of the British Empire under Queen Victoria at the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging to the Crown.

Latin for 'from sea to sea').[47]

The term Dominion had been used for centuries to refer to the lands held by a monarch,[48] and had previously been adopted as titles for the Dominion of New England and the Dominion and Colony of Virginia. It continued to apply as a generic term for the major colonial possessions of the British Empire until well into the 20th century;[49] although Tilley and the other Fathers of Confederation broadened the meaning of the word dominion to a "virtual synonym for sovereign state."[50] Its adoption as a title for Canada in 1867 served the purpose of upholding the monarchist principle in Canada; in a letter to Queen Victoria, Lord Carnarvon stated:[51]

The North American delegates are anxious that the United Provinces should be designated as the 'Dominion of Canada.' It is a new title, but intended on their part as a tribute to the Monarchical principle which they earnestly desire to uphold.[51]

Macdonald, however, bemoaned its adoption. In a letter to Lord Knutsford on the topic of the loss of the use of the word kingdom, Macdonald said:

Canadian post card from 1905.

A great opportunity was lost in 1867 when the Dominion was formed out of the several provinces…The declaration of all the B.N.A. provinces that they desired as one dominion to remain a portion of the Empire, showed what wise government and generous treatment would do, and should have been marked as an epoch in the history of England. This would probably have been the case had

Lord Monck - both good men, certainly, but quite unable, from the constitution of their minds, to rise to the occasion. Had a different course been pursued, for instance, had united Canada been declared to be an auxiliary kingdom, as it was in the Canadian draft of the bill, I feel sure almost that the Australian colonies would, ere this, have been applying to be placed in the same rank as The Kingdom of Canada.[52][53]

He added as a postscript that it was adopted on the suggestion of British colonial ministers to avoid offending republican sensibilities in the United States:

P.S. On reading the above over I see that it will convey the impression that the change of title from Kingdom to Dominion was caused by the Duke of Buckingham. This is not so. It was made at the instance of Lord Derby, then foreign minister, who feared the first name would wound the sensibilities of the Yankees. I mentioned this incident in our history to Lord Beaconsfield at Hughenden in 1879, who said, 'I was not aware of the circumstance, but it is so like Derby, a very good fellow, but who lives in a region of perpetual funk.'[54]

Use of the term dominion was formalized in 1867 through Canadian Confederation. In the Constitution of Canada, namely the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts), the preamble of the act indicates:

Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom....[55]

Moreover, section 2 indicates that the provinces:

... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.[55]

French terms

The French translation of the 1867

British North America Act) translated "One Dominion under the Name of Canada" as "une seule et même Puissance sous le nom de Canada" using Puissance ('power') as a translation for dominion. Later, the English loanword dominion was also used in French.[56]

The

feudal rank
" (see Resolution 71 of the Quebec Conference, 1864). The candidates for the classification of this new union were: le Royaume du Canada ('the Kingdom or Realm of Canada'), l'Union du Canada ('the Union of Canada'), and le Dominion du Canada ('the Dominion of Canada').

Use of Dominion

There are numerous references in

Canadian banknotes
before 1935.

Crowds on Parliament Hill celebrate Dominion Day 1927, the 60th jubilee of confederation

Until the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was commonly used to identify the country. As the country acquired

autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government began using simply Canada on state documents. Quebec nationalist
leaders also objected to dominion, arguing that it suggested Ottawa would have control over Quebec.

Under Prime Minister Louis St-Laurent, compromises were reached that quietly, and without legislation, "Dominion" would be retired in official names and statements, usually replaced by "federal". The St. Laurent government thereby ended the practice of using "Dominion" in the Statutes of Canada in 1951.[59]

The independence of the separate

Queen of South Africa, and of all her other "realms and territories".[6] This also reflected the change from dominion to realm; in the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II's new titles in 1953, the phrase "of her other Realms and Territories" replaced "dominion" with another mediaeval French word with the same connotation, "realm" (from royaume).[60]

With that said, the national holiday of "

recorded vote.[61]

The Canada Act 1982 refers only to Canada and does not use the term dominion. No constitutional statute amends this name, nor does any Canadian legal document state that the name of the country is anything other than Canada.[62] Moreover, official sources of the United Nations system,[63][64] international organizations (such as the Organization of American States),[65] the European Union,[66] the United States,[67] and other polities with which Canada has official relations as a state either consistently use Canada as the only official name, affirm that Canada has no long-form name, or affirm that the formal name is simply Canada.

The terms Dominion and Dominion of Canada are still considered to be appropriate, although arcane, titles for the country.[68][69][70] The federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these titles, although these publications are not themselves legal or official documents.[71][72][73] For instance, in 2008 the Canadian government registered the Maple Leaf Tartan, designed in 1964, with the Scottish Tartans Authority. The tartan's alternate name is "Dominion of Canada."[74][75]

The term Dominion and Dominion of Canada is also used in a colonial historical sense, having been used to distinguish contemporary (post-1867) Canada from either the earlier Province of Canada or from the even earlier The Canadas and modern history of the current realms.[76] The terms have also been used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though in this usage, "federal" has replaced "dominion". For example, The Canadian Almanac stopped using Dominion of Canada in 1964.

See also

Notes

  1. Merriam-Webster Dictionary
    : "a self-governing nation of the Commonwealth of Nations other than the United Kingdom that acknowledges the British monarch as chief of state"

References

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  49. ^ "... on the 23rd of April 1895, Tongaland was declared by proclamation to be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria ... " ("Africa" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 343.)
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Bibliography

Further reading

External links
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