Names of Korea
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There are various names of Korea in use today that are all derived from those of ancient Koreanic kingdoms and dynasties. The choice of name often depends on the language, whether the user is referring to either or both modern Korean countries, and even the user's political views on the Korean conflict.
The name Korea is an exonym, derived from Goryeo or Koryŏ. Both North Korea and South Korea use the name in English. However, in the Korean language, the two Koreas use different terms to refer to the nominally unified nation: Joseon (조선, 朝鮮) in North Korea and Hanguk (한국, 韓國) in South Korea. [citation needed]
History
The earliest records of Korean history are written in Chinese characters called hanja. Even after the invention of hangul, Koreans generally recorded native Korean names with hanja, by translation of meaning, transliteration of sound, or even combinations of the two. Furthermore, the pronunciations of the same character are somewhat different in Korean and the various Korean dialects, and have changed over time.
For all these reasons, in addition to the sparse and sometimes contradictory written records, it is often difficult to determine the original meanings or pronunciations of ancient names.
Ancient history
Gojoseon
Until 108 BC, northern Korea and part of
Possibly the
Other scholars believe 朝鮮 was a translation (like Japanese kun'yomi) of the native Korean Asadal (아사달), the capital of Gojoseon: asa being a hypothetical Altaic root word for "morning", and dal meaning "mountain", a common ending for Goguryeo place names (with the use of the character 鮮 "fresh" to transcribe the final -dal syllable possibly having been based on the pronunciation of the ancient ancestor of Middle Korean dɔl- > Modern Korean 달 dal- "sweet").[3]
An early attempt to translate these characters into English gave rise to the expression "The Land of the Morning Calm" for Korea,[4] which parallels the expression "The Land of the Rising Sun" for Japan. While the wording is fanciful, the essence of the translation is valid.[citation needed]
Han
Around the time of Gojoseon's fall, various chiefdoms in southern Korea grouped into confederacies, collectively called the
Han was transliterated in Chinese records as 韓; hán (한), 幹; gàn (간), 刊; kān (간), and 干; gān (간). The Korean name Han is etymologically disconnected from both the Chinese state 韓; hán, despite sharing the same Chinese character, and the Han (漢; hàn) dynasty along with the associated ethnicity.
Beginning in the 7th century, the name "
In China, the Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called Samhan since the beginning of the 7th century.[7] The use of the name Samhan to indicate the Three Kingdoms of Korea was widespread in the Tang dynasty.[8] Goguryeo was alternately called Mahan by the Tang dynasty, as evidenced by a Tang document that called Goguryeo generals "Mahan leaders" (마한추장; 馬韓酋長) in 645.[7] In 651, Emperor Gaozong of Tang sent a message to the king of Baekje referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea as Samhan.[5] Epitaphs of the Tang dynasty, including those belonging to Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla refugees and migrants, called the Three Kingdoms of Korea "Samhan", especially Goguryeo.[8] For example, the epitaph of Go Hyeon (고현; 高玄), a Tang dynasty general of Goguryeo origin who died in 690, calls him a "Liaodong Samhan man" (요동 삼한인; 遼東 三韓人).[7] The History of Liao equates Byeonhan to Silla, Jinhan to Buyeo, and Mahan to Goguryeo.[6]
The "Han" in the names of the
Goryeo
Around the beginning of the Common Era, remnants of the fallen Gojoseon were re-united and expanded by the kingdom of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It, too, was a native Korean word, probably pronounced something like "Guri", transcribed with various hanja characters: 高句麗, 高勾麗, or 高駒麗 (고구려, Goguryeo), 高麗 (고려, Goryeo), 高離 (고리, Gori), or 句麗 (구려, Guryeo). The source native name is thought to be either *Guru ("walled city, castle, fortress"; attested in Chinese historical documents, but not in native Korean sources) or *Gauri ("center, middle"; cf. Middle Korean *gaβɔndɔy and Standard Modern Korean gaunde 가운데). [citation needed]
The theory that Goguryeo referenced the founder's surname has been largely discredited (the royal surname changed from Hae to Go long after the state's founding). [citation needed]
Revival of the names
In the south, the Samhan resolved into the kingdoms of
The succeeding dynasty called itself Goryeo (Korean: 고려; Hanja: 高麗; MR: Koryŏ), and regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo (Korean: 고구려; Hanja: 高句麗; MR: Koguryŏ).[9][10][11][12] The name Goryeo was the shortened form of Goguryeo and was first used during the reign of Jangsu in the 5th century. Through the Silk Road trade routes, Persian and Arab merchants brought knowledge about Silla and Goryeo to India and the Middle East. Goryeo was transliterated into Italian as "Cauli", the name Marco Polo used when mentioning the country in his Travels, derived from the Chinese form Gāolí.
In 1392, a new dynasty established by a military coup revived the name
In 1897, the nation was renamed Daehan Jeguk (대한제국, 大韓帝國, literally, "Great Han Empire", known in English as Korean Empire). Han had been selected in reference to Samhan, specifically the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.[5][6] So, Daehan Jeguk (대한제국, 大韓帝國) means it is an empire that rules the area of Three Kingdoms of Korea. This name was used to emphasize independence of Korea, because an empire cannot be a subordinate country.
20th century
When the Korean Empire came under Japanese rule in 1910, the name reverted to Joseon (officially, the Japanese pronunciation Chōsen). During this period, many different groups outside of Korea fought for independence, the most notable being the Daehan Minguk Imsi Jeongbu (대한민국 임시정부, 大韓民國臨時政府), literally the "Provisional Government of the Great Han People's State", known in English as the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (民國 = 民 'people' + 國 country/state' = 'republic' in East Asian capitalist societies).[a]
Korea became independent after World War II (1945) and the country was then divided.
In 1948, the South adopted the provisional government's name of Daehan Minguk (대한민국, 大韓民國; see above), known in English as the
Meanwhile, the North became Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk (조선민주주의인민공화국, 朝鮮民主主義人民共和國), translated in English as the
Current usage
East Asia
Korea
Today, South Koreans use Hanguk (한국, 韓國) to refer to just South Korea[17] or Korea as a whole, Namhan (남한, 南韓; "South Han") for South Korea, and Bukhan (북한, 北韓; "North Han") for North Korea. South Korea less formally refers to North Korea as Ibuk (이북, 以北; "The North"). South Koreans often refer to Korea as "uri nara" (우리나라), meaning "our nation" or "our country". In addition, the official name for the Republic of Korea in the Korean language is "Daehan Minguk" (대한민국, 大韓民國; which is usually translated as "The Republic of Korea").
North Koreans use
In the tourist regions in North Korea and the official meetings between South Korea and North Korea, Namcheuk (남측, 南側) and Bukcheuk (북측, 北側), or "southern side" and "northern side", are used instead of Namjosŏn and Bukhan.
The
Greater China
In Chinese-speaking areas such as China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, different naming conventions on several terms have been practiced according to their political proximity to whichever Korean government although there is a growing trend for convergence.
In the Chinese language, the Korean Peninsula is usually called Cháoxiǎn Bàndǎo (simplified Chinese: 朝鲜半岛; traditional Chinese: 朝鮮半島) and in rare cases called Hán Bàndǎo (simplified Chinese: 韩半岛; traditional Chinese: 韓半島). Ethnic Koreans are also called Cháoxiǎnzú (朝鲜族), instead of Dàhán mínzú (大韓民族). However, the term Hánguó ren (韩国人) may be used to specifically refer to South Koreans.
Before establishing diplomatic relations with South Korea, the
Similarly, general usage in
In the Chinese language used in Singapore and Malaysia, North Korea is usually called Cháoxiǎn (朝鲜 "Chosŏn") with Běi Cháoxiǎn (北朝鲜 "North Chosŏn") and Běihán (北韩 "North Han") less often used, while South Korea is usually called Hánguó (韩国 "Hanguk") with Nánhán (南韩 "South Han[guk]") and Nán Cháoxiǎn (南朝鲜 "South Chosŏn") less often used.
In Hokkien speaking areas of chinese communities in countries like Taiwan and around Southeast Asia, Korea is called Hân-kok (韓國 "Hanguk") where North Korea is referred to as Pak-hân (北韓 "North Han") and South Korea as Lâm-hân (南韓 "South Han").
The above usage pattern does not apply for Korea-derived words. For example, Korean ginseng is commonly called Gāolì shēn (高麗參, "Koryo ginseng").
Japan
In Japan, North Korea is called Kita-Chōsen (北朝鮮) and South Korea Kankoku (韓国).
However,
For Korea as a whole, Chōsen (朝鮮; "Joseon") is commonly used. The term Chōsen, which has a longer usage history, continues to be used to refer to the Korean Peninsula, the Korean ethnic group, and the Korean language, which are use cases that would not cause confusion between Korea and North Korea. When referring to both North Korean and South Koreans, the
The Korean language is most frequently referred to in Japan as Kankokugo (韓国語) or Chōsengo (朝鮮語). While academia mostly prefers Chōsengo, Kankokugo became more and more common in non-academic fields, thanks to the economic and cultural presence of South Korea. The language is also referred to as various combined terms, such as Kankoku-Chōsen-go (韓国朝鮮語), Chōsen-Kankoku-go (朝鮮・韓国語), "Kankokugo (Chōsengo)" (韓国語(朝鮮語)), etc. Some people refer to the language as Koriago (コリア語), using the European name for Korea. This term is not used in ordinary Japanese, but was selected as a compromise to placate both nations in a euphemistic process called kotobagari. Likewise, when NHK broadcasts a language instruction program for Korean, the language is referred to as hangurugo (ハングル語; "hangul language"); although it is technically incorrect since hangul itself is a writing system, not a language.[b] Some argue that even Hangurugo is not completely neutral, since North Korea calls the writing system Chosŏn'gŭl, not hangul. Urimaru (ウリマル), a direct transcription of uri mal (우리말, "our language") is sometimes used by Korean residents in Japan, as well as by KBS World Radio. This term, however, may not be suitable to ethnic Japanese whose "our language" is not necessarily Korean.
Uri (우리 "we/us/our") is the first-person plural pronoun and it is commonly used as a prefix in Korean terms to describe things that are Korean, such as uri nara (우리나라, "our country") which is yet another name Koreans give their country.[24]
In Japan, those who moved to Japan usually maintain their distinctive cultural heritages (such as the Baekje-towns or Goguryeo-villages). Ethnic
Mongolia
Mongolian people have their own word for Korea: Солонгос (Solongos). In Mongolian, solongo may mean either "rainbow" or "mountain weasel (Mustela altaica, heeriyn solongo "field/steppe solongo") or Siberian weasel (Mustela sibirica, oyn solongo "forest solongo")." Another theory states that the name is probably derived from the Solon tribe living in Manchuria, a tribe culturally and ethnically related to the Korean people.[citation needed] North and South Korea are, accordingly, Хойд Солонгос (Hoid Solongos) and Өмнөд Солонгос (Ömnöd Solongos). The authors of an article published in the year 2023 have related Mongolian Solongos for "Korea" to the Mongolic word *solagaï (cf. Khalkh Mongolian солгой "left-handed, a lefty; out of tune, sounding wrong"), which may in turn be from Turkic *sōl "left."[25]; because "left" also means "east(ern)" in Mongolic languages (whereas "right" also means "west(ern)"), the authors suggest that this word may have been used to refer to "a foreign enemy force in the east," similar to Chinese 東夷 Dōngyí.
The name of either Silla or its capital Seora-beol was also widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing [...] as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus respectively. The plural of Solho ("Korea, Korean; a Korean") in the Manchu language is Solhoso ("Koreans, Korean people"), similar to Solongos in Mongolian. Manchu also has solohi or silihi for certain kinds of weasel (specifically, suwayan solohi "yellow solohi" for Mustela sibirica), but nioron for "rainbow."
The Mongolian and Manchu names for Korea and Koreans also resemble Old Japanese Siraki ~ Siragi ("Silla") and Old Korean *Syerapeur "Gyeongju; capital city of Silla" > Late Middle Korean Syeveulh "capital city (of Joseon)" > Modern Korean Seoul "capital city (of South Korea)."
Vietnamese-speaking areas
In Vietnam, people call North Korea Triều Tiên (朝鮮; "Chosŏn") and South Korea Hàn Quốc (韓國; "Hanguk"). Prior to unification, North Vietnam used Bắc Triều Tiên (北朝鮮; Bukchosŏn) and Nam Triều Tiên (南朝鮮; Namjoseon) while South Vietnam used Bắc Hàn (北韓; Bukhan) and Nam Hàn (南韓; Namhan) for North and South Korea, respectively. After unification, the northern Vietnamese terminology persisted until the 1990s. When South Korea reestablished diplomatic relations with Vietnam in 1993, it requested that Vietnam use the name that it uses for itself, and Hàn Quốc gradually replaced Nam Triều Tiên in usage.
In the Vietnamese language used in the United States, Bắc Hàn and Nam Hàn are most common used.
Outside East Asia
English usage and spelling
Both South and North Korea use the name "Korea" when referring to their countries in English. North Korea is sometimes referred to as "Democratic People's Republic of Korea" (DPRK) and South Korea is sometimes referred to as the "Republic of Korea" (ROK). The official names of both entities are also used by organizations such as United Nations, International Olympic Committee and media such as the Associated Press, China Global Television Network (CGTN), and several others.[26]
As with other European languages, English historically had a variety of names for Korea. These included "Cauli" (Marco Polo's rendering of Goryeo), Caule, Core, Cory, Caoli, and Corai as well as two spellings that survived into the 19th century, Corea and Korea. The modern spelling, "Korea", first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Company's Hendrick Hamel. The terms "Chosunese" or "Chosonese" were first used to refer to the people of Joseon in the late 19th century but were eventually phased out.[27]
Both major English-speaking governments in the 19th and 20th centuries (the
A shift can also be seen in Korea itself, where postage stamps issued in 1884 used the name "Corean Post" in English, but those from 1885 and thereafter used "Korea" or "Korean Post".[33]
-
1884 stamp reading "Corean Post"
-
1885 stamp reading "Korea"
-
1900 stamp reading "Imperial Korean Post"
By the first two decades of the 20th century, "Korea" began to be seen more frequently than "Corea" – a change that coincided with Japan's consolidation of its grip over the peninsula. However, the spelling "Corea" was occasionally used even under full colonial rule and both it and "Korea" were largely eschewed in favor of the Japanese-derived "Chosen",[28] which itself was derived from "Joseon".
A theory that grew in popularity in South Korea in the early 2000s and especially during the 2002 joint World Cup (and endorsed by the North Korean state) was that Japan as occupier had intentionally standardized the spelling on "Korea", allegedly so that "Japan" would appear first alphabetically. However, evidence of a deliberate name change orchestrated by Japanese authorities is circumstantial, for example, a 1912 memoir by a Japanese colonial official[who?] that complained of the Koreans' tendency "to maintain they are an independent country by insisting on using a C to write their country's name."[30]
Other languages
European languages use variations of the name "Korea" for both North and South Korea. In general,
Koreans abroad
Emigrants who moved to
South Korean expatriates living in the U.S. may refer to themselves as
Names of Unified Korean sporting teams
Sobriquets of Korea
In traditional Korean culture, as well as in the cultural tradition of East Asia, the land of Korea has assumed a number of sobriquets over the centuries, including:
- 계림 (鷄林) Gyerim, "Rooster Forest", in reference to an early name for Silla.
- 군자지국 (君子之國) Gunjaji-guk, or "Land of Scholarly Gentlemen".
- 금수강산 (錦繡江山) Geumsu gangsan, "Land of Embroidered (or Splendid) Rivers and Mountains".
- 단국 (檀國) Danguk, "Country of Dangun".
- 대동 (大東) Daedong, "Great East".
- 동국 (東國) Dongguk, "Eastern Country".
- 동방 (東邦) Dongbang, literally "an Eastern Country" referring to Korea.
- 동방예의지국 (東方禮義之國, 東方禮儀之國) Dongbang yeuiji-guk, "Eastern Country of Courtesy".
- 동야 (東野) Dongya, "Eastern Plains".
- 동이 (東夷) Dong-i, or "Eastern Foreigners".
- 구이 (九夷) Gu-i, "Nine-i", refers to ancient tribes in the Korean peninsula.[37]
- 동토 (東土) Dongto, "Eastern Land".
- 백의민족 (白衣民族) Baeguiminjok, "The white-clad race".
- 삼천리 (三千里) Three-thousand Li, a reference to the length traditionally attributed to the country from its northern to southern tips plus eastern to western tips.
- 아사달 (阿斯達) Asadal, apparently an Old Korean term for Joseon.
- 청구 (靑丘) Cheonggu, or "Azure Hills". The color Azure is associated with the East.
- 팔도강산 (八道江山) Paldo gangsan, "Rivers and Mountains of the Eight Provinces", referring to the traditional eight provinces of Korea.
- 근화향 (槿花鄕) Geunhwahyang, "Country of Mugunghwa" refer to Silla Kingdom.
- 근역 (槿域) Geunyeok, "Hibiscus Territory", or Land of Hibiscus
- 삼한 (三韓) Samhan, or "Three Hans", refers to Samhan confederacy that ruled Southern Korea. Beginning in the 7th century, Samhan became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
- 해동 (海東) Haedong, "East of the Sea" (here being the West Sea separating from Korea).
- 해동삼국 (海東三國) Haedong samguk, "Three Kingdoms East of the Sea" refers to Three Kingdoms of Korea
- 해동성국 (海東盛國) Haedong seongguk, literally "Flourishing Eastern Sea Country", historically refers to Balhae Kingdom of north–south period.
- 진국 (震國,振國) Jinguk, "Shock Country", old name of Balhae Kingdom.
- 진역 (震域) Jinyeok, "Eastern Domain".
- 진단 (震檀,震壇) Jindan, "Eastern Country of Dangun".
- 진국 (辰國) Jinguk, "Country of Early Morning", refer to the Jin state of Gojoseon period.[38]
See also
Notes
- ^ Actually Republic is 共和國 공화국 ("Mutually peaceful country"), derived from the Gonghe Regency (共和), as can be seen in the names of the People's Republic of China and North Korea but the Republic of China and South Korea coined the latter 民國 민국
- ^ In the program, however, teachers avoid the name Hangurugo, by always saying this language. They would say, for instance, "In this language, Annyeong haseyo means Hello."
References
- ^ 교수, 김운회 동양대 (24 May 2005). 숙신이 조선에서 나온 아홉가지 이유. Pressian (in Korean). Retrieved 25 December 2018.
- ^ 교수, 김운회 동양대 (5 September 2008). 당신은 쥬신. Pressian (in Korean). Retrieved 25 December 2018.
- ^ "[땅이름] 태백산과 아사달 / 허재영]" (in Korean). 25 July 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
- ^ Graham, Adam H. (25 September 2022). "Exploring 'The Land of Morning Calm'". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j 이기환 (30 August 2017). [이기환의 흔적의 역사]국호논쟁의 전말…대한민국이냐 고려공화국이냐. Kyunghyang Shinmun (in Korean). Retrieved 2 July 2018.
- ^ a b c d e 이덕일. [이덕일 사랑] 대~한민국. 조선닷컴 (in Korean). The Chosun Ilbo. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
- ^ a b c "고현묘지명(高玄墓誌銘)". 한국금석문 종합영상정보시스템. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
- ^ ISSN 1226-6213. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
- ISBN 9780520045620. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
- ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
- ISBN 9780313038532. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
- ISBN 9781136869259. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
- ^ The Korean Repository, Volume 4. Trilingual Press. 1897. p. 79.
- ^ a b Tertitskiy, Fyodor (21 November 2018). "How North Korea got its (official) name". NK News. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
- ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (20 May 2018). "North Korea's state-loyalty advantage". Free Online Library. Archived from the original on 20 May 2018.
- ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (28 December 2016). "Still the Unloved Republic". Sthele Press. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
Taehan minguk. In English it is translated as Republic of Korea or South Korea, names which to us foreigners denote the state as a political entity distinct from its northern neighbor. To most people here, however, Taehan minguk conveys that sense only when used in contrastive proximity with the word Pukhan (North Korea)." "Ask South Koreans when the Taehan minguk was established; more will answer '5000 years ago' than 'in 1948,' because to them it is simply the full name for Hanguk, Korea, the homeland. That's all it meant to most people who shouted those four syllables so proudly during the World Cup in 2002.
- ^ "Hanguk". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
- ^ "Chosŏn". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
- ^ Young, Banjamin R. (7 February 2014). "Why is North Korea called the DPRK?". NK News. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ^ ""Conspiracy Theory"? — B.R. Myers". Sthele Press. 20 August 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
- ^ Shane Green, Treaty plan could end Korean War, The Age, November 6, 2003
- ^ Tokyo Shimbun, December 31, 2002
- ^ Asahi, Mainichi, and Nikkei
- ^ Hyunjinmoon. "우리 (Uri) – The Korean Notion of the Collective Self". www.hyunjinmoon.com. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
- ^ Kang Junyoung and Yoo Byungjae (Feb 2023), "A Study on the Origin of the Name of Korea (Solongos) in Mongolia." Mongol Studies (몽골학) No. 72, pp. 117~148. https://doi.org/10.17292/kams.2022.72.005
- ^ "ROK, DPRK leaders to meet April 27 in historic summit". China Daily. Agencies. 29 March 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
- ^ The Korean Repository, Volume 1
- ^ a b "Korea versus Corea". Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
- ^ Korea from around 1913 using the spelling "Corean"
- ^ a b Demick, Barbara (15 September 2003). "A 'C' Change in Spelling Sought for the Koreas". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 5 February 2024.
- ^ H. N. Allen, MD Korean Tales: Being a Collection of Stories Translated from the Korean Folk Lore. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1889.
- ^ a b "Korea in the White City: Korea at the World's Columbian Exhibition (1893)." Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 77 (2002), 27.
- ^ KSS-Korbase's Korean Stamp Issuance Schedules
- ^ Commonwealth of Independent States Report, 1996.
- ^ 재외동포현황 Current Status of Overseas Compatriots, South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2009, archived from the original on 23 October 2010, retrieved 21 May 2009
- ^ "The Korean Ethnic Group", China.org.cn, 21 June 2005, retrieved 6 February 2009
- ISBN 9783839415542. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
- ^ Ancient History of the Manchuria By Lee Mosol, MD, MPH
Further reading
- Kong Myong-song (2009). Successive Names of Korea and Their Deviations (PDF). Pyongyang: ISBN 978-9946-0-0371-9. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2016-08-02.