Napoleon

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Napoleon
Portrait of Napoleon in his late thirties, in high-ranking white and dark blue military dress uniform. In the original image he stands amid rich 18th-century furniture laden with papers, and gazes at the viewer. His hair is Brutus style, cropped close but with a short fringe in front, and his right hand is tucked in his waistcoat.
Emperor of the French
1st reign18 May 1804 – 6 April 1814
SuccessorLouis XVIII[a]
2nd reign20 March – 22 June 1815
SuccessorLouis XVIII[a]
First Consul of the French Republic
In office
13 December 1799 – 18 May 1804
BornNapoleone Buonaparte
(1769-08-15)15 August 1769
Ajaccio, Corsica, France
Died5 May 1821(1821-05-05) (aged 51)
Longwood, Saint Helena
Burial15 December 1840
Spouses
(m. 1796; ann. 1810)
Marie Louise of Austria
(m. 1810; sep. 1814)
Issue
more…
Napoleon II
SignatureNapoleon's signature
Map
About OpenStreetMaps
Maps: terms of use
1000km
620miles
Rochefort
18
Surrender of Napoleon on 15 July 1815
Waterloo
17
Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815
Elba
16
Exile to Elba from 30 May 1814 to 26 February 1815
Dizier
15
Battle of Saint-Dizier is the primary link --- Battle of Brienne on 29 January 1814 Battle of La Rothière on 1 February 1814 Battle of Champaubert on 10 February 1814 Battle of Montmirail on 11 February 1814 Battle of Château-Thierry (1814) on 12 February 1814 Battle of Vauchamps on 14 February 1814 Battle of Mormant on 17 February 1814 Battle of Montereau on 18 February 1814 Battle of Craonne on 7 March 1814 Battle of Laon from 9 to 10 March 1814 Battle of Reims (1814) from 12 to 13 March 1814 Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube from 20 to 21 March 1814 Battle of Saint-Dizier on 26 March 1814
Leipzig
14
Battle of Leipzig is the primary link --- Battle of Lützen (1813) on 2 May 1813 Battle of Bautzen (1813) from 20 to 21 May 1813 Battle of Dresden from 26 to 27 August 1813 Battle of Leipzig from 16 to 19 October 1813 Battle of Hanau from 30 to 31 October 1813
Berezina
13
Battle of Berezina from 26 to 29 November 1812
Borodino
12
Battle of Borodino is the primary link --- Battle of Vitebsk on 26 July 1812 Battle of Smolensk on 16 August 1812 Battle of Borodino on 7 September 1812
Wagram
11
Battle of Wagram is the primary link --- Battle of Teugen-Hausen on 19 April 1809 Battle of Abensberg on 20 April 1809 Battle of Landshut (1809) on 21 April 1809 Battle of Eckmühl from 21 to 22 April 1809 Battle of Ratisbon on 23 April 1809 Battle of Aspern-Essling from 21 to 22 May 1809 Battle of Wagram from 5 to 6 July 1809 Battle of Znaim from 10 to 11 July 1809
Somosierra
10
Battle of Somosierra on 30 November 1808
Friedland
9
Battle of Friedland is the primary link --- Battle of Czarnowo on 23 December 1806 Battle of Eylau from 7 to 8 February 1807 Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807
Jena
8
Battle of Jena–Auerstedt on 14 October 1806
Austerlitz
7
Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805
Marengo
6
Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800
Cairo
5
Revolt of Cairo is the primary link --- Battle of Shubra Khit on 13 July 1798 Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 Battle of the Nile from 1 to 3 August 1798 Revolt of Cairo from 21 to 22 October 1798 Siege of El Arish from 8 to 20 February 1799 Siege of Jaffa from 3 to 7 March 1799 Siege of Acre (1799) from 20 March to 21 May 1799 Battle of Mount Tabor (1799) on 16 April 1799 Battle of Abukir (1799) on 25 July 1799
Malta
4
French invasion of Malta from 10 to 12 June 1798
Arcole
3
Battle of Arcole is the primary link --- Battle of Montenotte from 11 to 12 April 1796 Battle of Millesimo from 13 to 14 April 1796 Second Battle of Dego from 14 to 15 April 1796 Battle of Ceva on 16 April 1796 Battle of Mondovì from 20 to 22 April 1796 Battle of Fombio from 7 to 9 May 1796 Battle of Lodi on 10 May 1796 Battle of Borghetto on 30 May 1796 Battle of Lonato from 3 to 4 August 1796 Battle of Castiglione on 5 August 1796 Siege of Mantua (1796–1797) from 27 August 1796 to 2 February 1797 Battle of Rovereto on 4 September 1796 Battle of Bassano on 8 September 1796 Second Battle of Bassano on 6 November 1796 Battle of Caldiero (1796) on 12 November 1796 Battle of Arcole from 15 to 17 November 1796 Battle of Rivoli from 14 to 15 January 1797 Battle of Valvasone (1797) on 16 March 1797 Battle of Tagliamento on 16 March 1797 Battle of Tarvis (1797) from 21 to 23 March 1797
Paris
2
13 Vendémiaire on 5 October 1795
Toulon
1
Siege of Toulon (1793) from 29 August to 19 December 1793
Rescale the fullscreen map to see Saint Helena.

Napoleon Bonaparte

a series of military campaigns across Europe during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1796 to 1815. He led the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, then ruled the French Empire as Emperor of the French
from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815.

Born on the island of

a military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies in the War of the First Coalition, scoring decisive victories and becoming a national hero. He led an invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798 which served as a springboard to political power. In November 1799, Napoleon engineered the Coup of 18 Brumaire against the Directory, and became First Consul of the Republic. He won the Battle of Marengo in 1800, which secured France's victory in the War of the Second Coalition, and in 1803 sold the territory of Louisiana to the United States. In December 1804, Napoleon crowned himself
Emperor of the French, further expanding his power.

The breakdown of the

Seventh Coalition, which defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena
in the South Atlantic, where he died of stomach cancer in 1821, aged 51.

Napoleon is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history and Napoleonic tactics are still studied at military schools worldwide. His legacy endures through the modernizing legal and administrative reforms he enacted in France and Western Europe, embodied in the Napoleonic Code. He established a system of public education,[2] abolished the vestiges of feudalism,[3] emancipated Jews and other religious minorities,[4] abolished the Spanish Inquisition,[5] enacted the principle of equality before the law for an emerging middle class,[6] and centralized state power at the expense of religious authorities.[7] His conquests acted as a catalyst for political change and the development of nation states. However, he is controversial due to his role in wars which devastated Europe, his looting of conquered territories, and his mixed record on civil rights. He abolished the free press, ended directly elected representative government, exiled and jailed critics of his regime, reinstated slavery in France's colonies except for Haiti, banned the entry of blacks and mulattos into France, reduced the civil rights of women and children in France, reintroduced a hereditary monarchy and nobility,[8][9][10] and violently repressed popular uprisings against his rule.[11]

Early life

Napoleon's family was of Italian origin. His paternal ancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a minor Tuscan noble family who emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century and his maternal ancestors, the Ramolinos, descended from a noble family from Lombardy.[12]

Napoleon's parents,

Maria Letizia Ramolino, lived in the Maison Bonaparte home in Ajaccio, where Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769. He had an elder brother, Joseph, and, later, six younger siblings: Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline, and Jérôme.[13] Five more siblings were stillborn or did not survive infancy.[14] Napoleon was baptized as a Catholic, under the name Napoleone di Buonaparte. In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio, Napolionne, and Napulione.[15]

Napoleon was born one year after the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France.[16][d] His father supported Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican war of independence against France. After the Corsican defeat at the Battle of Ponte Novu in 1769 and Paoli's exile in Britain, Carlo became friends with the French governor Charles Louis de Marbeuf, who became his patron and godfather to Napoleon.[20][21] With Mabeuf's support, Carlo was named Corsican representative to the court of Louis XVI and Napoleon obtained a royal bursary to a military academy in France.[22][23]

Half-length portrait of a wigged middle-aged man with a well-to-do jacket. His left hand is tucked inside his waistcoat.
Napoleon's father, Carlo Buonaparte, fought for Corsican independence under Pasquale Paoli. After their defeat, he eventually became the island's representative to Louis XVI's court.

The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child.[22] Later in life, Napoleon said, "The future destiny of the child is always the work of the mother."[24] Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time.[25]

In January 1779, at age 9, Napoleon moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun to improve his French (his mother tongue was the Corsican dialect of Italian).[26][27][28] Although he eventually became fluent in French, he spoke with a Corsican accent and his French spelling was poor.[29]

In May, he transferred to the military academy at Brienne-le-Château where he was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms, and poor French.[26] He became reserved and melancholic, applying himself to reading. An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor".[e][31]

One story of Napoleon at the school is that he led junior students to victory against senior students in a snowball fight, which allegedly showed his leadership abilities.[32] But the story was only told after Napoleon had become famous.[33] In his later years at Brienne, Napoleon became an outspoken Corsican nationalist and admirer of Paoli.[34]

In September 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the École militaire in Paris where he trained to become an artillery officer. He excelled at mathematics, and read widely in geography, history and literature. However, he was poor at French and German.[35] His father's death in February 1785 cut the family income and forced him to complete the two-year course in one year. In September he was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace and became the first Corsican to graduate from the École militaire.[36][37]

Early career

Return to Corsica

Bonaparte, aged 23, as lieutenant-colonel of a battalion of Corsican Republican volunteers. Portrait made in 1835 by Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux

Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a

Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, but spent long periods of leave in Corsica which fed his Corsican nationalism.[39][40] In September 1789, he returned to Corsica and promoted the French revolutionary cause. Paoli returned to the island in July 1790, but he had no sympathy for Bonaparte, as he deemed his father a traitor for having deserted the cause of Corsican independence.[41][42]

Bonaparte plunged into a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He became a supporter of the Jacobins and joined the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations to secede.[43] He was given command over a battalion of Corsican volunteers and promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and a dispute between his volunteers and the French garrison in Ajaccio.[44][45]

In February 1793, Bonaparte took part in the failed French expedition to Sardinia. Following allegations that Paoli had sabotaged the expedition and that his regime was corrupt and incompetent, the French National Convention outlawed him. In early June, Bonaparte and 400 French troops failed to capture Ajaccio from Corsican volunteers and the island was now controlled by Paoli's supporters. When Bonaparte learned that the Corsican assembly had condemned him and his family, the Buonapartes fled to Toulon on the French mainland.[46][47]

Siege of Toulon

Edouard Detaille

Bonaparte returned to his regiment in Nice and was made captain of a coastal battery.[48] In July 1793, he published a pamphlet, Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire), demonstrating his support for the National Convention which was now heavily influenced by the Jacobins.[49][50]

In September, with the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti, Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces sent to recapture the port of Toulon which was occupied by Allied forces.[51] He quickly increased the available artillery and proposed a plan to capture a hill fort where republican guns could dominate the city's harbour and force the Allies to evacuate. The successful assault on the position on 16–17 December led to the capture of the city.[52]

Toulon brought Bonaparte to the attention of powerful men including Augustin Robespierre, the younger brother of Maximilien Robespierre, a leading Jacobin. He was promoted to brigadier general and put in charge of defences on the Mediterranean coast. In February 1794, he was made artillery commander of the Army of Italy and devised plans to attack the Kingdom of Sardinia.[53][54]

The French army carried out Bonaparte's plan in the Second Battle of Saorgio in April 1794, and then advanced to seize Ormea in the mountains. From Ormea, it headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge. After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine the country's intentions towards France.[55][56]

13 Vendémiaire

English painter Joseph Farington, who met him in 1802, said Bonaparte's eyes were "lighter, and more of a grey, than I should have expected from his complexion", that "his person is below middle size", and that "his general aspect was milder than I had before thought it."[399]

In his later years Napoleon gained weight and had a sallow complexion. Novelist Paul de Kock, who saw him in 1811, called Napoleon "yellow, obese, and bloated".[400]

During the Napoleonic Wars, the British press depicted Napoleon as a dangerous tyrant, poised to invade. A nursery rhyme warned children that he ate naughty people; the "bogeyman".[401] He was mocked as a short-tempered small man and was nicknamed "Little Boney in a strong fit".[402] In fact, at about 170 cm (5 ft 7 in), he was of average height.[403][404]

He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne hat—sideways—with a hand-in-waistcoat gesture—a reference to the painting produced in 1812 by Jacques-Louis David.[405]

Reforms

First remittance of the Legion of Honour, 15 July 1804, at Saint-Louis des Invalides, by Jean-Baptiste Debret (1812)

Napoleon instituted numerous reforms, many of which had a lasting influence on France, Europe and the world. He reformed the French administration, codified French law, implemented a new education system, and established the first French central bank, the Banque de France.[406] He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, which sought to reconcile the majority Catholic population to his regime. It was presented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated public worship in France. He also implemented civil and religious equality for Protestants and Jews.[407] In May 1802, he instituted the Legion of Honour to encourage civilian and military achievements. The order is still the highest decoration in France.[408][409] He introduced three French constitutions culminating in the reintroduction of a hereditary monarchy and nobility.[410]

Administration

Napoleon introduced a series of centralizing administrative reforms soon after taking power. In 1800, he established prefects appointed to run France's regional departments, sub-prefects to run districts and mayors to run towns. Local representative bodies were retained, but their powers were reduced and indirect elections with a high property qualification replaced direct elections.[411] Real power in the regions was now in the hands of the prefects who were judged by how they met the main priorities of Napoleon's government: efficient administration, law and order, stimulating the local economy, gathering votes for plebiscites, conscripting soldiers and provisioning the army.[412][413]

An enduring reform was the foundation, in December 1799, of the

Council of State, an advisory body of experts which could also draft laws for submission to the legislative body. Napoleon drew many of his ministers and ambassadors from the council. It was the council which undertook the codification of French law.[414]

After several attempts by revolutionary governments, Napoleon officially introduced the metric system in France in 1801 and it was spread through western Europe by his armies.[415][416] The new system was unpopular in some circles, so in 1812 he introduced a compromise system in the retail trade called the mesures usuelles (traditional units of measurement).[417] In December 1805, Napoleon abolished the Revolutionary calendar, with its ten-day week, which had been introduced in 1793.[418]

Napoleonic Code

Page of French writing
First page of the 1804 original edition of the Code Civil

Napoleon's

Council of State that revised the drafts. The code introduced a clearly written and accessible set of national laws to replace the various regional and customary law systems that had operated in France.[419]

The civil code entrenched the principles of equality before the law, religious toleration, secure property rights, equal inheritance for all legitimate children, and the abolition of the vestiges of feudalism. However, it also reduced the rights of women and children and severely restricted the grounds for divorce.[420][421]

A criminal code was promulgated in 1808, and eventually seven codes of law were produced under Napoleon.[422] The Napoleonic code was carried by Napoleon's armies across Europe and influenced the law in many parts of the world. Alfred Cobban described it as, "the most effective agency for the propagation of the basic principles of the French Revolution."[423]

Warfare

Photo of a grey and phosphorous-coloured equestrian statue. Napoleon is seated on the horse, which is rearing up, he looks forward with his right hand raised and pointing forward; his left hand holds the reins.
Statue in Cherbourg-Octeville unveiled by Napoleon III in 1858. Napoleon I strengthened the town's defences to prevent British naval incursions.

In the field of military organization, Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert, and from the reforms of preceding French governments, and then developed what was already in place. He continued the Revolutionary policies of conscription and promotion based primarily on merit.[424][425]

Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare.[424]

Napoleon was regarded by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as a genius in the art of war, and many historians rank him as a great military commander.[424] Wellington considered him the greatest military commander of all time,[426] and Henry Vassall-Fox called him "the greatest statesman and the ablest general of ancient or modern times".[427] Cobban states that he showed his genius in moving troops quickly and concentrating them on strategic points.[428] His principles were to keep his forces united, keep no weak point unguarded, seize important points quickly, and seize his chance.[429] Owen Connelly, however, states, "Napoleon's personal tactics defy analysis." He used his intuition, engaged his troops, and reacted to what developed.[430]

Napoleon was an aggressive commander with a preference for the offensive.[431] Under Napoleon, the focus shifted towards destroying enemy armies rather than simply outmanoeuvering them. Wars became more costly and decisive as invasions of enemy territory occurred on larger fronts. The political cost of war also increased, as defeat for a European power now meant more than just losing isolated territories. Peace terms were often punitive, sometimes involving regime change, which intensified the trend towards total war since the Revolutionary era.[424][432]

Education

Napoleon's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of secondary and tertiary education in France and throughout much of Europe.

Ancien Régime, The Enlightenment, and the Revolution.[434] His education laws of 1802 left most primary education in the hands of religious or communal schools which taught basic literacy and numeracy for a minority of the population.[435] He abolished the revolutionary central schools and replaced them with secondary schools and elite lycées where the curriculum was based on reading, writing, mathematics, Latin, natural history, classics, and ancient history.[436]

He retained the revolutionary higher education system, with grandes écoles in professions including law, medicine, pharmacy, engineering and school teaching. He introduced grandes écoles in history and geography, but opposed one in literature because it was not vocational. He also founded the military academy of Saint Cyr.

École Polytechnique, that provided both military expertise and advanced research in science.[438]

In 1808, he founded the Imperial University, a supervisory body with control over curriculum and discipline. The following year he introduced the baccalaureate.[439] The system was designed to produce the efficient bureaucrats, technicians, professionals and military officers that the Napoleonic state required. It outperformed its European counterparts, many of which borrowed from the French system.[440]

Female education, in contrast, was designed to be practical and religious, based on home science, the catechism, basic literacy and numeracy, and enough science to eradicate superstition.[441]

Nobility and honours

In May 1802, Bonaparte created the Legion of Honour whose members would be military personnel and civilians with distinguished service to the state. The new institution was unpopular with republicans and the measure only passed by 14 votes to 10 in the Council of State.[442] The Legion of Honour became an order of chivalry after the empire was proclaimed in 1804. In August 1806, Napoleon created an hereditary imperial nobility including princes, dukes, counts, barons and knights. Eventually the empire had over 3,000 nobles and more than 30,000 members of the Legion of Honour.[443][444]

Memory and evaluation

Criticism

The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya, showing Spanish resisters being executed by French troops
A mass grave of soldiers killed at the Battle of Waterloo

There is debate over whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe" or "a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler".[445] He was compared to Adolf Hitler by Pieter Geyl in 1947,[446] and Claude Ribbe in 2005.[447] Most modern critics of Napoleon, however, reject the Hitler comparison, arguing that Napoleon did not commit genocide and did not engage in the mass murder and imprisonment of his political opponents.[448][449] Nevertheless, David A. Bell and McLynn condemn his killing of 3,000–5,000 Turkish prisoners of war in Syria.[104][105]

A number of historians have argued that his expansionist foreign policy was a major factor in the Napoleonic wars,[450][451] which cost six million lives and caused economic disruption for a generation.[452][453] McLynn and Correlli Barnett suggest that Napoleon's reputation as a military genius is exaggerated.[454][455] Cobban and Susan P. Conner argue that Napoleon had insufficient regard for the lives of his soldiers and that his battle tactics led to excessive casualties.[456][457]

Critics also cite Napoleon's exploitation of conquered territories.[455] To finance his wars, Napoleon increased taxes and levies of troops from annexed territories and satellite states.[458][459] He also introduced discriminatory tariff policies which promoted French trade at the expense of allies and satellite states.[460] He institutionalized plunder: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon's forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to the Musée du Louvre for a grand central museum; an example which would later be followed by others.[461]

Many historians have criticized Napoleon's authoritarian rule, especially after 1807, which included censorship, the closure of independent newspapers, the bypassing of direct elections and representative government, the dismissal of judges showing independence, and the exile of critics of the regime.[8][462][10] Historians also blame Napoleon for reducing the civil rights of women, children and people of colour, and reintroducing the legal penalties of civil death and confiscation of property.[463][462][420] His reintroduction of an hereditary monarchy and nobility remains controversial.[442][464] His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France's colonies in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean adversely affect his reputation.[465][466]

Propaganda and memory

1814 English caricature of Napoleon being exiled to Elba: the ex-emperor is riding a donkey backwards while holding a broken sword.

Napoleon's use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship and control of the press, books, theatre, and art were part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing peace and stability to France. Propaganda focused on his role first as a general then as a civil leader and emperor. He fostered a relationship with artists, commissioning and controlling different forms of art to suit his propaganda goals.[467]

Napoleonic propaganda survived his exile to Saint Helena. Las Cases, who was with Napoleon in exile, published The Memorial of Saint Helena in 1822, creating a legend of Napoleon as a liberal, visionary proponent of European unification, deposed by reactionary elements of the Ancien Régime.[468][469] Napoleon remained a central figure in the romantic art and literature of the 1820s and 1830s.[470]

The Napoleonic legend played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815–1830. People from different walks of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 Revolution.[471] The defiance manifested itself in seditious materials, displaying the tricolour and rosettes. There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon's life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations.[471]

Bell sees the return of Napoleon's remains to France in 1840 as an attempt by Louis-Phillipe to prop up his unpopular regime by associating it with Napoleon, and that the regime of Napoleon III was only possible due to the continued resonance of the Napoleonic legend.[472]

Venita Datta argues that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Writers and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends.[473]

In the 21st century, Napoleon appears regularly in popular fiction, drama and advertising. Napoleon and his era remain major topics of historical research with a sharp increase in historical books, articles and symposia during the bicentenary years of 1999 to 2015.[474][475]

Long-term influence outside France

Bas-relief of Napoleon in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives

Napoleon was responsible for spreading many of the values of the French Revolution to other countries, especially through the Napoleonic Code.[476] After the fall of Napoleon, it continued to influence the law in western Europe and other parts of the world including Latin America, the Dominican Republic, Louisiana and Quebec.[477]

Napoleon's regime abolished remnants of feudalism in the lands he conquered and in his satellite states. He liberalized property laws, ended manorialism, abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalized divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and ended the Spanish Inquisition. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality before the law was proclaimed for all men.[478]

Napoleon reorganized what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made up of about three hundred Kleinstaaten, into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of the Rhine; this helped promote the German Confederation and the unification of Germany in 1871, as it sparked a new wave of German nationalism that opposed the French intervention.[479]

The movement toward

Italian unification was similarly sparked by Napoleonic rule.[480] These changes contributed to the development of nationalism and the nation state.[481]

The Napoleonic invasion of Spain and ousting of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy had a significant effect on

Ferdinand VII of Spain, whom they considered the legitimate monarch. Napoleon indirectly began the process of Latin American independence when the power vacuum was filled by local political leaders such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín. Such leaders embraced nationalistic sentiments influenced by French nationalism and led successful independence movements in Latin America.[482][483]

Napoleon's reputation is generally favourable in Poland, which is the only country in the world to evoke him in its national anthem, Poland Is Not Yet Lost.[484]

Children

Empress Marie Louise and her son Napoleon, by François Gérard, 1813

Napoleon married Joséphine in 1796, but the marriage produced no children.[485] In 1806, he adopted his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais (1781–1824), and his second cousin, Stéphanie de Beauharnais (1789–1860), and arranged dynastic marriages for them.[486]

Napoleon's marriage to Marie Louise produced one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (Napoleon II) (1811–1832), known from birth as the King of Rome. When Napoleon abdicated in 1815 he named his son his successor as "Napoleon II", but the allies refused to recognize him. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no children.[487][488]

Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son:

Maria Walewska, was also widely known to be his child,[485] as DNA evidence has confirmed.[491] He may have had further illegitimate offspring.[492]

Titles

Political offices
Preceded by
First Consul of the French Republic[493]
13 December 1799 – 18 May 1804
with Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès
and Charles-François Lebrun
Succeeded by
Himself as Emperor
Preceded by President of the Italian Republic[494]
26 January 1802 – 18 May 1805
with Francesco Melzi d'Eril as Vicepresident
Succeeded by
Himself as King
Preceded by Mediator of the Swiss Confederation[495]
19 February 1803 – 29 December 1813
Succeeded by
Preceded by
Himself as
King of France
Emperor of the French[496]
as Napoleon I

18 May 1804 – 6 April 1814
20 March – 22 June 1815
Succeeded by
King of France
Preceded by
Himself as President
King of Italy[497]
17 March 1805 – 6 April 1814
with Eugène de Beauharnais as Viceroy
Vacant
Title next held by
Victor Emmanuel II in 1861
Preceded by Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine[498][499]
12 July 1806 – 4 November 1813
with Karl von Dalberg as Prince-primate
Succeeded by
Francis II (I)
(Head of the German Confederation
)
Preceded by
Himself as Emperor
Prince of Elba[500]
11 April 1814 – 26 February 1815
Succeeded by
Himself as Emperor

Arms

On becoming emperor, Napoleon adopted the French Imperial Eagle as his arms.[501]

Imperial Arms of Napoleon
Arms of Napoleon
Arms: Azure, an Eagle Or, head facing to the sinister, clutching in its talons a Thunderbolt Or.
Achievement of Napoleon
Arms and Achievement of Napoleon[502] · [503] · [504] · [505] · [506] · [507] · [508]  · [509]

Notes

  1. ^
    King of France
  2. ^ English: /nəˈpliən ˈbnəpɑːrt/ nə-POH-lee-ən BOH-nə-part; French: Napoléon Bonaparte [napɔleɔ̃ bɔnapaʁt].
  3. ^ Italian: [napoleˈoːne ˌbwɔnaˈparte]; Corsican: Napulione Buonaparte [napuliˈɔnɛ ˌbwɔnaˈbartɛ].
  4. ^ Although the 1768 Treaty of Versailles formally ceded Corsica's rights, it remained un-incorporated during 1769[16] until it became one of the Provinces of France in 1770.[17] Corsica would be legally integrated as a département in 1789.[18][19]
  5. ^ Aside from his name, there does not appear to be a connection between him and Napoleon's theorem.[30]
  6. Hippolyte Delaroche and in Jacques-Louis David's imperial Napoleon Crossing the Alps. He is less realistically portrayed on a charger in the latter work.[127]
  7. ^ There were actually three versions of the act written on 4 April 1814. The final signed version explicitly refers to "Napoleon II" as his successor.[277]

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Works cited

Biographical studies

Historiography and memory

Specialty studies

Further reading