National Pacification Army
National Pacification Army | |
---|---|
Anguojun / Ankuochun | |
Flag of the Beiyang government and the National Pacification Army until December 1928 (Five Races Under One Union) Emblem of the National Pacification Army (Beiyang star) | |
Active | 1926–1928 |
Country | China |
Allegiance | Beiyang government Fengtian clique |
Type | Army |
Nickname(s) | "NPA" |
Equipment | 7.92mm Year-13 Rifle (Shisannian-shi buqiang)[1]: 65 8cm Mortars (1100 produced 1924-1928), 150mm Heavy Mortars, 37mm Infantry Guns, 75mm Field Guns, 77mm Cannons, 105mm Cannons, 150mm Howitzers, various German (Mauser) and Japanese (Arisaka) rifles[1]: 72–3 |
Engagements | Northern Expedition |
Commanders | |
Commander-in-Chief (Generalissimo after June 1927) | Zhang Zuolin |
Chief of Staff | Yang Yuting |
National Pacification Army | |
---|---|
Hanyu Pinyin | Ānguójūn |
Wade–Giles | An-kuo Chün |
The National Pacification Army (NPA), also known as the Anguojun or Ankuochun (Chinese: 安國軍), was a warlord coalition led by Fengtian clique General Zhang Zuolin, and was the military arm of the Beiyang government of the Republic of China during its existence.
The army was formed in November 1926 after the Fengtian victory in the
Despite having achieved a few victories in mid-1927 in
Background
The
In 1924, Zhili-aligned Jiangsu governor Qi Xieyuan declared war on Fengtian-allied Zhejiang governor Lu Yongxiang, sparking a new conflict between the Fengtian and Zhili cliques, called the Second Zhili–Fengtian War. The decisive moment of the conflict came on 30 October 1924, when warlord Feng Yuxiang broke from the Zhili clique, declared the establishment of the independent Guominjun, and aligned with the Fengtian in his Beijing Coup.[6]: 164–165 This led to an overwhelming Fengtian victory, the removal of the Zhili clique from the capital and Cao Kun from the presidency of the Republic of China, and placed Zhang Zuolin in control of the Beiyang government.[6]: 165
Fengtian thus took control of Zhili and Shandong provinces, with the Zhili clique routed southwards, where warlord Sun Chuanfang established control of the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Fujian, and Jiangxi.[7] The army he created he named the Allied Army of the Five Provinces (Chinese: 五省聯軍).[1]: 106 The fragile peace following the Second Zhili–Fengtian War did not last long, as Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zuolin quickly turned against each other. Both had been seeking an alliance with the Zhili clique, but Wu Peifu, in an attempt at revenge, sided with Zhang in the Anti-Fengtian War.[3]: 66 In October 1925, Sun Chuanfang began the invasion of Jiangsu, and Feng began his invasion of Shandong, which was now under the control of Fengtian general Zhang Zongchang. In November 1925, general Guo Songling turned against Zhang Zuolin, siding with Feng. In January 1926, Zhang launched an offensive, ordering his troops in Fengtian and Shandong provinces to invade Beijing and Tianjin.[1]: 103–7
By mid-1926, Zhang and his Fengtian clique held the dominant stake in the Beiyang government.[1]: 106 At around the same time, in June 1926, the rival Kuomintang government, based in the southern city of Guangzhou, launched the Northern Expedition. This posed a serious threat to the northern cliques, and countering the Kuomintang advance would be the raison d'être of the National Pacification Army.[1]: 3 Zhang was also pressured by a destabilization of the government in Beijing as well as Japanese and Soviet influence. With Zhang having pushed Feng away from Beijing, beyond the Nankou Pass, and with the collapse of Wu Peifu's army in the wake of the NRA advance in Hunan and Hubei provinces in late 1926, the Fengtian clique cemented its position both as leader of the Beiyang government and as the main military clique in northern China.[1]: 112–13
History
Establishment (1926)
Following the period of chaos in the aftermath of the Anti-Fengtian War, and the disintegration of Guominjun and Zhili power in Beijing, Zhang Zuolin brought together his
At the establishment of the NPA in November 1926, Zhang Zuolin had two main allies. The first was
The NPA was essentially a new version of Zhang Zuolin's Eastern Three Provinces Defense Headquarters, with its main difference being that it was located in Beijing, rather than
Setbacks in Henan and Jiangsu (1927)
In early 1927, the forces of the NPA and the National Revolutionary Army were facing off in Henan and Jiangsu. In May 1927, the Japanese, represented by Colonel
Two other major Chinese battlegrounds in this period were Jiangsu, (specifically the city of
Decline (1927–1928)
Zhang Zuolin's military government had almost attained international recognition—British minister to China Sir Miles Lampson was sympathetic to the warlords as their military situation seemed to improve in mid-1927; the fighting on the Jiangsu front seemed to be favoring them. Gaining international recognition was crucial to the Beiyang government, as it would add another layer of legitimacy and help reverse the unequal treaties, which was one of the main goals of the Kuomintang movement against the warlords. When Yang Yuting asked for financial help from Lampson, Lampson was "friendly and sympathetic", and suggested that "many things might be possible" if the NPA managed to win the war. However, this was short-lived, as the NPA could not hold out for long enough to gain foreign recognition. Sun Chuanfang's defeat in Jiangsu and the subsequent defeat of Zhang Zongchang on the Shandong front in November turned the tides of the war, although the NPA had secured some victories in Shanxi in September.[1]: 133–4
In November 1927, the NRA launched an offensive, taking
At the beginning of 1928, the now severely weakened National Pacification Army was being pushed back. The coalition between Chiang, Feng, Yan, and Li Zongren surrounded it to the south, with troops in Shanxi, Henan, and southern Shandong. Yan's forces had flanked the west of the Beijing–Tianjin railway in early 1928.[13]: 319 The NPA still planned to retake Henan, but they were in no position to do so. In mid-April, Yan was able to expel the NPA and launch his own counteroffensive, pushing them out of Shuochou. Nearly one million soldiers participated in the battle along the railway connecting Shanxi with Beijing. In order to immobilize the railways and artillery on trains, Yan and Feng launched a joint siege of Shijiazhuang, a major railway hub, which fell on 9 May. Yan took Zhangjiakou on 25 May. Feng's forces were moving up the Beijing–Hankou railway, forcing the NPA to split their defense.[16] In April, the Shandong front collapsed as Zhang Zongchang was fully defeated. As NRA forces reached Beijing, Zhang directed 200,000 men to hold the southern front. Feng was pushed back from Baoding to Dingzhou, where Feng was unable to advance from. However, Feng defeated the NPA on the eastern front and immediately attempted to sever NPA communications through cutting them off from rail lines. Finally, on 3 June, Zhang decided to move his headquarters back to Manchuria. Having observed the dire state of affairs of the NPA in Beijing, feeling alarmed at the potential fate of Japanese interests in Manchuria should the Kuomintang be victorious, and believing that Zhang was too uncooperative, officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army threatened that they would block Zhang Zuolin from returning to Mukden if he made an agreement with the KMT.[17] As he was returning to Manchuria following the abandonment of Beijing, his train was blown up by officers of the Kwantung Army on 4 June 1928 in what was called the Huanggutun incident.[1]: 135
Dissolution under Zhang Xueliang (1928)
Following the death of Zhang Zuolin, his son, Zhang Xueliang, took power. Yang Yuting became fully responsible for the military strategy of the NPA, which had now been severely reduced, assuming the role of Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern Three Provinces Defense Headquarters in July 1928.
As Yang grew more and more powerful, Zhang Xueliang became more suspicious of him. He was paranoid that Yang would use Japanese support to replace his position. Additionally, Yang often did not listen to orders or recommendations from Zhang, even though he was officially his subordinate.[18] Zhang therefore ordered the executions of Yang and his associate, Heilongjiang governor Chang Yinhuai,[19] thereby ending the leadership of the internal clique of Fengtian officers that had attended the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and allowing Zhang to take full control over the affairs of the Fengtian clique and the NPA.[1]: 136–7 Zhang sent a telegram to Nanjing, justifying his execution of Yang and Chang.[20]
Zhang Xueliang decided to cut down the Fengtian Army and funding to the Mukden Arsenal to fix the financial situation of Manchuria. It was here that he completely disbanded the National Pacification Army, with only Yu Xuezhong's army turning to Fengtian, while the rest of the former NPA armies were absorbed by NRA or Shanxi forces.[1]: 137 Many of the former NPA forces east of Tianjin were cleared up in September 1928.[21]
Towards the end of the Northern Expedition, the KMT government in Nanjing began to be recognized by foreign powers as the legitimate government of China. However, this led to a weakening of the Chinese military presence and position in Manchuria.
Structure
Command
The Military Academy of the Eastern Three Provinces trained 7,971 officers from 1919 to 1930. These new officers formed the backbone of the lower levels of the NPA military command structure. At the top were graduates of Baoding Military Academy, who also served as instructors at the Military Academy of the Eastern Three Provinces.[1]: 73
The command of the Fengtian clique was dominated by people such as Yang Yuting, who held the positions of Chief of Staff and head of the Mukden Arsenal, known as the Shikan clique as they had all studied at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. This faction had the upper hand over the Staff College Clique, who studied at the Staff College of Beijing.[1]: 66 This faction was led by Guo Songling. Guo had rebelled in 1925, severely decreasing the influence of the Staff College Clique.[22] With Guo dead, Zhang Zuolin headed the Staff College Clique.[18]
Composition
By 1927, the Fengtian Army was estimated to have 8 gun regiments. US intelligence reported that they also had seven 77mm field gun regiments with 420 guns (36 per regiment, 12 per battalion) as well as a regiment of twenty-four 150mm guns.[23] The Fengtian Army consisted of 220,000 men in 1928. Sun Chuanfang's army consisted of 200,000 men by 1927, despite two of his divisions defecting to the NRA. During his defense at the Yangtze, Sun had 70,000 troops, split up into 11 divisions and 6 mixed brigades. Access to equipment was so limited that some soldiers were armed with spears instead of guns. The battle at Longtan, near Nanjing, caused 30,000 casualties for Sun, with 35,000 rifles and 30 field guns taken by the NRA. By the end of the battle, Sun was left with only 10,000 men.[24]
The Zhili–Shandong Army (consisting of men from the provinces of Zhili and Shandong) consisted of 150,000 men and 165 pieces of artillery by 1927. There were also 4,000 White Russian mercenaries serving in the army, and 2,000 boys (ages averaging around 10) led by one of Zhang Zongchang's sons. These boys were given special short rifles.[24] The Zhili–Shandong Army was reported to have 160 pieces of field artillery, of which 40 were in disrepair.[23]
Propaganda
Zhang Zuolin, as he saw himself as lacking the political power, styled himself as Generalissimo, rather than President as
Additionally, Ankuochun propaganda portrayed Zhang Zuolin's son,
As for the Ankuochun generals, propaganda portrayed them as honorable and legitimate men; their honor and legitimacy stemming from their association with important figures, their diverse backgrounds, their skills, and their willingness to expel foreign influence.[1]: 87–88
References
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-34084-8.
- ISBN 978-0-520-08128-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8108-7874-7.
- ISBN 978-981-4779-67-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7748-1992-3.
- ^ ISBN 1134610092.
- ISBN 978-0-521-52332-5.
- ^ a b United States. Department of State (1926). Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 659.
- ^ OCLC 657972971.
- ISBN 978-962-04-0099-5.
- ISBN 978-0-313-30078-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-5063-0081-8.
- ^ a b c d e "The Winning Over of the Big Warlords: Feng and Yen.” The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926–1928, by DONALD A. JORDAN, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 1976, pp. 316–322. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv9zck3k.36. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Hsi-sheng Chi (1969). The Chinese Warlord System: 1916 to 1928. American University, Center for Research in Social Systems. p. 48.
- ^ a b The September Government and the Northern Expedition. The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926–1928, by DONALD A. JORDAN, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 1976, pp. 164–172. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv9zck3k.21. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ The Peking Campaign: Completion of the Military Unification. The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926–1928, by DONALD A. JORDAN, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 1976, pp. 186–194. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv9zck3k.23. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-419-22160-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-981-10-0494-0.
- ^ The Chinese Students' Monthly. Chinese Students' Alliance. 1928. p. 241.
- ISBN 978-0-520-22111-6.
- ISBN 978-1-85207-930-7.
- ISBN 978-0-313-33539-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8240-3025-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4728-0673-4.