Nationalist government
Republic of China 中華民國 Zhōnghuá mínguó | |||||||||||
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1925–1948 | |||||||||||
Anthem: 中華民國國歌 Zhōnghuá mínguó guógē " | |||||||||||
Capital | |||||||||||
Largest city | Shanghai | ||||||||||
Official languages | Standard Chinese | ||||||||||
Demonym(s) | Chinese | ||||||||||
Government |
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Chairman | |||||||||||
• 1928 | Tan Yankai (first) | ||||||||||
• 1943–1948 | Chiang Kai-shek (last) | ||||||||||
Generalissimo | |||||||||||
• 1931–1946 | Chiang Kai-shek | ||||||||||
Premier | |||||||||||
• 1928–1930 | Tan Yankai (first) | ||||||||||
• 1947–1948 | Zhang Qun (last) | ||||||||||
Legislature | National Assembly | ||||||||||
Control Yuan | |||||||||||
Legislative Yuan | |||||||||||
History | |||||||||||
• Established in Guangzhou | 1 July 1925 | ||||||||||
1926–1928 | |||||||||||
• Reset in Nanjing | 18 April 1927 | ||||||||||
1927–1936, 1946–1950 | |||||||||||
7 July 1937 – 2 September 1945 | |||||||||||
• Admitted to the United Nations | 24 October 1945 | ||||||||||
25 October 1945 | |||||||||||
28 February 1947 | |||||||||||
25 December 1947 | |||||||||||
• Government of the Republic of China established | 20 May 1948 | ||||||||||
Currency |
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ISO 3166 code | CN | ||||||||||
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Today part of |
The Nationalist government, officially the National Government of the Republic of China (Chinese: 中華民國國民政府; pinyin: Zhōnghuá mínguó guómín zhèngfǔ), refers to the government of the Republic of China from 1 July 1925 to 20 May 1948, led by the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party.
Following the outbreak of the
History
Republic of China | ||
---|---|---|
Tâi-lô | Tiong-huâ bîn-kok |
The oldest surviving republic in
At the end of
After World War II, the civil war between the ruling Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) resumed, despite attempts at mediation by the United States. The Nationalist Government began drafting the Constitution of the Republic of China under a National Assembly, but was boycotted by the CCP. With the promulgation of the constitution, the Nationalist Government abolished itself and was replaced by the Government of the Republic of China. Following their loss of the Civil War, the Nationalist Government retreated and moved their capital to Taipei while claiming that they were the legitimate government of the mainland.
Founding
After Sun's death on 12 March 1925, four months later on 1 July 1925, the National Government of the Republic of China was established in Guangzhou.
The following year, as Generalissimo of the National Revolutionary Army, Chiang Kai-shek became the de facto leader of the Kuomintang (KMT), or Chinese Nationalist Party. He especially headed the right-wing of the Nationalist Party, while the Communists formed part of the Party's left-wing. Chiang led the Northern Expedition through China with the intention of defeating the warlords and unifying the country. The National Revolutionary Army received significant aid from the Soviet Union; Chiang himself was surrounded by Soviet military advisors. Much of the Nationalist Party, however, became convinced, not without reason, that the Communists, under recent orders from the Comintern, wanted to break from the United Front and get rid of the KMT.[2]
Chiang decided to
Nanjing Decade and War with Japan
According to Sun Yat-sen's "Three Stages of Revolution" theory, the KMT was to rebuild China in three phases: the first stage was military unification, which was carried out with the Northern Expedition; the second was "
Even had it been the KMT's intention, historians such as Edmund Fung argue that they may not have been able to establish a democracy under the circumstances of the time.(
Economic growth and social improvements were mixed. The Kuomintang supported women's rights and education, the abolition of polygamy, and foot binding. The government of the Republic of China under Chiang's leadership also enacted a women's quota in the parliament with reserved seats for women. During the
The Nationalists faced a new challenge with the
Post-World War II
After the defeat of Japan during
From 1945 to 1947, under United States mediation, especially through the
After the
Government
The National Government governed under a dual-party state apparatus under the ideology of Dang Guo, effectively making it a one-party state; however, existing parties continued to operate and new ones formed. After the end of the Second World War, and particularly after the passage of the constitution in 1946, the National Government was reconstituted to include multiple parties, in preparation for a full democratic government to come.
In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress held in Nanjing passed the Reorganization of the National Government Act. This act stipulated the national government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the National Government being elected by KMT Central Committee. Under the national government was seven ministries – Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, and Commerce. There were also additional institutions such as the Supreme Court, Control Yuan, and the General Academy.
With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the National Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches or Yuan, namely the
Authority within the Nationalist government ultimately lay with Chiang Kai-shek.[32]: 43 All major policy changes on military, diplomatic, or economic issues required his approval.[32]: 156 According to historian Odd Arne Westad, "no other leader within the GMD had the authority to force through even the simplest decisions.[32]: 156 The practical power of high-ranking officials like ministers or the head of the Executive Yuan was more closely tied to their relationship with Chiang than with the formal authority of their position.[32]: 43 Chiang created multiple layers of power in his administration which he sometimes played off each other to prevent individuals or cliques from gathering power that could oppose his authority.[32]: 93–94
The Nationalist government exercised relatively little control in China's border regions, where the political fragmentation along ethnic lines that began after the fall of the Qing dynasty continued.[33]: 110
Military
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) (traditional Chinese: 國民革命軍; simplified Chinese: 国民革命军; pinyin: Guómín Gémìng Jūn; Wade–Giles: Kuo-min Ke-ming Chün), pre-1928 sometimes shortened to 革命軍 or Revolutionary Army and between 1928 and 1947 as 國軍 or National Army was the Military Arm of the Kuomintang (KMT) from 1925 until 1947, as well as the national army of the Republic of China during the KMT's period of party rule beginning in 1928.
Originally organized with
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the CCP were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the
Forced conscription campaigns were conducted by the military; they are described by
Then there was the process of conscription. This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps like Buchenwald. Probably 3,081,000 died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1,131,000 during the Civil War – 4,212,000 dead in total. Just during conscription.
Because of the Nationalist government's increasing inability to fund the military, especially after Japan's success in Operation Ichigo, Nationalist authorities overlooked military corruption and smuggling.[32]: 24–25 The Nationalist army increasingly turned to raiding villages to press-gang peasants into service and force marching them to assigned units.[32]: 25
Economy
After the Kuomintang reunified the country in 1928, China entered a period of relative prosperity despite civil war and Japanese aggression. In 1937, the
Chinese industries continued to develop in the 1930s with the advent of the
However, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an
In 1937, Japan invaded China and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east China coast was occupied by the Japanese, who carried out various atrocities such as the Rape of Nanjing in 1937 and random massacres of whole villages. In one anti-guerrilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade.[39] Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20 percent capacity and had 25 percent of the output of pre-war China.[40]
One effect of the war was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government-owned industries were only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries in order to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to control and supervise firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70 percent of the capital of Chinese industry was owned by the government.[41]
Following the war with Japan, Chiang acquired Taiwan from Japan and renewed his struggle with the Communists. However, the corruption of the KMT, as well as hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the Republic and sympathy for the communists.[42] Nearly all studies of the collapse of the Nationalist government identify hyperinflation as a major factor in the government's failure.[32]: 5
The communist land redistribution movement was an important factor in the Nationalists' defeat, particularly because it linked the interests of peasants in the north and northeast to the Communists' success.[43]
In 1949, the People's Liberation captured Beijing and later Nanjing as well. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China central government relocated to Taipei on 7 December 1949, to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork.[44]
Former sites
Almost all of the former sites of the nationalist government are headquartered in the city of Nanjing, the capital at the time, with only one exception.
Name | Image | Location | Construction Date | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
Headquarters of the Nationalist Government | No.292 Changjiang Road, Xuanwu District , Nanjing
|
1870-1930s | The complex served as Viceroy of Liangjiang's Office in Qing dynasty, and as the Presidential Palace in 1948. | |
Executive Yuan (1928) | No.19 Dongjian Road, Xuanwu District , Nanjing
|
1920s | The building, serving as the Executive Yuan from 1928 to 1937, is now a part of the Presidential Palace complex. | |
Executive Yuan (1946) | No.252-254 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing
|
1930 | The building was the headquarter of the Ministry of Railways at first, then the site of Executive Yuan from 1946 to 1949. After the communists took over Nanjing, it became a building of PLA Nanjing Political College .
| |
Executive Yuan (1949) | Zhongshan East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing
|
1929 | It was the site of Lizhi She in the 1930s. In 1949, the Nationalist Government decided to move the Executive Yuan into this building. The building now served as a part of Zhongshan Hotel. | |
Legislative Yuan (1928) | No.273 Baixia Road, Qinhuai District , Nanjing
|
It was the site of the "Mistress House". The Nationalist Government chose the house to become the seat of Legislative Yuan in 1928. | ||
Legislative Yuan (1946) & Control Yuan | No.105 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing
|
1935 | The building was Nanjing City Hall during the Japanese occupation. After the Second World War , it became the offices of Legislative Yuan and Control Yuan. Now it is Nanjing Soldiers' Club.
| |
Judicial Yuan's Entrance | No.251 Zhongshan Road, Gulou District, Nanjing
|
1935 | The building was destroyed by fire in April 1949. Only the gate remains. | |
Examination Yuan | No.41-43 Beijing East Road, Xuanwu District , Nanjing
|
1930s | The building is now served as Nanjing City Government Offices and the Committee of Nanjing, CPPCC. | |
Supreme Court | No.101 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing
|
1933 | The building was also served as the Supreme Prosecutor Office | |
Military Affairs Commission | No.292 Changjiang Road, Xuanwu District , Nanjing
|
1870s | This house was built in 1870s, after Taiping Rebellion. In the 1930s, Chiang Kai-shek chose it to be one of the headquarters of the Military Affairs Commission. The house is located in the Presidential Palace complex and becoming a popular tourist attraction now. | |
National Resource Commission | No.200 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing
|
1947 | The building is now an office building of Nanjing Tech University
| |
Ministry of Economic Affairs | No.145 Zhongshan East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing
|
The building is now served as the office of Nanjing Sports Bureau. | ||
Central Bank | No.15 Huangpu District, Shanghai
|
1899–1902 | This was the only institution not headquartered in the city of Nanjing. Once being the Shanghai branch of Russo-Chinese Bank, this building now becomes Shanghai Foreign Exchange Trading Center. | |
Ministry of Health | No.305 Zhongshan East Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing
|
1931 | The building was in the site of the National Central Hospital complex. It is Nanjing General Hospital of Nanjing Military Command now.
| |
Ministry of Education | Chengxian Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing | The building is now occupied by some governmental officials. | ||
Ministry of Transportation & Communications | No.303-305 Zhongshan North Road, Gulou District, Nanjing
|
1932–1934 | Opposite was the site of the Executive Yuan. After the communists took over Nanjing, it became a building of PLA Nanjing Political College .
| |
National Assembly Hall (1936) | No.2 Sipailou, Xuanwu District , Nanjing
|
1930s | Before the National Theatre of Drama and Music was completed, the National Assembly was held in the Auditorium of National Central University. | |
National Assembly Hall (1946) | No.264 Changjiang Road, Xuanwu District, Nanjing
|
1935 | The building was served as the National Theatre of Drama and Music. After the World War II, it became the meeting place of the 1948 presidential election and the birthplace of the Constitution . So this building played an important role in the modern history of China.
| |
Residence of the Chairman (1946) | Purple Mountain, Xuanwu District , Nanjing
|
1931–1934 | Also known as "the Red Hill Mansion" and "Mei-ling Villa", the building was one of the main residences of Chiang & Soong in Nanjing after WWII. And it became one of the official residences of the President of the ROC from 1948 to 1949. |
When the city of Nanjing was not captured by the Nationalist Government, they chose the following buildings as their headquarters.
Name | Image | Location | Construction Date | Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nationalist Government in Canton (1925) | No.118 Yuehua rd, Yuexiu District , Guangzhou
|
In 1925, the Nationalist Government was established here. Today, all the buildings inside were demolished except the gate. | ||
Nationalist Government in Wuhan (1926) | No.708, Zhongshan Avenue, Wuhan | 1917–1921 | It was also called Nanyang Tobacco Building. In 1926, the National Revolutionary Army took control of Wuhan. Then, the officials of KMT chose Nanyang Tobacco Building to become the seat of the Nationalist Government. | |
Nationalist Government in Chongqing (1939) | Yuzhong District , Chongqing
|
In the period of the Second Sino-Japanese War, this building was served as the headquarters of the Nationalist Government until they moved back to Nanjing. The building was demolished in the 1980s. | ||
Nationalist Government in Hankow (1927) | Wuchang Uprising Memorial Building | 1927 | During the Wuhan Nationalist Government and during the Battle of Wuhan, This was the main government administration building. Nanyang Tobacco Building however, was the main administration during the Wuhan Nationalist Government. This building used to serve as the Headquarters of the Hubei Provincial Government during the Qing Dynasty and now serves as the Wuchang Uprising Memorial Building. |
See also
- Government of the Republic of China
- Kuomintang
- Republic of China (1912–1949)
- Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941)
- Diplomatic history of World War II
- Nanjing decade
Notes
- ^ Interpretations on whether this entails a complete transfer of the territory's sovereignty to the Republic of China vary. Japan renounced the claims to Taiwan and Pescadores in the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952. See Retrocession Day, Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan and political status of Taiwan.
References
Citations
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- ^ Fenby 2009
- ^ "南京市". 重編囯語辭典修訂本 (in Traditional Chinese). Ministry of Education, ROC. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
民國十六年,國民政府宣言定為首都,今以臺北市為我國中央政府所在地。(In the 16th Year of the Republic of China [1927], the National Government established [Nanking] as the capital. At present, Taipei is the seat of the central government.)
- ISBN 0-8179-9272-3.
After the 1930 mutiny ended, Chiang accepted the suggestion of Wang Ching-wei, Yen Hsi-shan, and Feng Yü-hsiang that a provisional constitution for the political tutelage period be drafted.
- ^ 荆, 知仁. 中华民国立宪史 (in Chinese). 联经出版公司.
- ^ Li, Xiaobing, ed. (2012). "Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsueh-liang) (1901–2001)". China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 531.
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- ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.
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- ^ a b Rummel, Rudolph. "Estimates, Sources, And Calculations, 1929 To June, 1937". China's Bloody Century. Transaction Publishers. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ^ (Fung 2000, p. 5) "Nationalist disunity, political instability, civil strife, the communist challenge, the autocracy of Chiang Kai-shek, the ascendancy of the military, the escalating Japanese threat, and the "crisis of democracy" in Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain, all contributed to a freezing of democracy by the Nationalist leadership."
- ^ a b Teon, Aris (28 February 2018). "Why Did Chiang Kai-shek Lose China? The Guomindang Regime And The Victory Of The Chinese Communist Party". The Greater China Journal. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ^ "禁纏足、興女學:南京國民政府在興女權上做出巨大努力 – 雪花新闻".
- ^ Chang-Ling Huang. "Gender Quotas in Taiwan" (PDF). 2.igs.ocha.ac.jp. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
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- ^ "抗戰前推動「普及教育案」的背景與實際作為 – 大中華民國". Stararctic108.weebly.com. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
- ^ Chen, Sherong (2002). 浅析1928-1930年西北大旱灾的特点及影响 [An Elementary Study about the Characteristics and the Effect of the Great Drought in Northwest China from 1928 to 1930]. Gùyuán Shīzhuān Xuébào 固原师专学报 [Journal of Guyuan Teachers College] (in Chinese). 23 (1). Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ Li, Lillian M. (2007). Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s–1990s (PDF). Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 303–307.
In Gansu the estimated mortality was 2.5 to 3 million [...] In Shaanxi, out of a population of 13 million, an estimated 3 million died of hunger or disease
- ^ Kelly, Luke. "Sichuan famine, 1936–37". Disaster History. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
- S2CID 146274415.
A detailed survey organized by the Nationalist government in 1943 of the impact of the famine came up with a toll of 1,484,983, broken down by county. The official population registers of Henan show a net decline in population from 1942 to 1943 of one million people, or 3 per cent of the population. If we assume that the natural rate of increase in the population before the famine was 2 per cent, [...] Comparison with the diminution in the size of age cohorts born during the famine years suggests that the official Nationalist figure includes population loss through excess mortality and declined fertility migration, which leaves a famine death toll of well under 1 million.
- ^ Maddison, A. (1998). Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Paris: OECD Development Centre.
- ^ "This Is the Shame". Time Magazine. 10 June 1946. Archived from the original on 14 January 2005.
- ^ "Snow Red & Moon Angel". Time Magazine. 7 April 1947. Archived from the original on 17 March 2005.
- ^ "Taiwan Timeline – Civil War". BBC News. 2000. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ Truman, China and History. Vol. 40. Time. 1956.
- ^ 评马歇尔离华声明,周恩来选集上卷,1947-1-10
- ^ "首都卫戍司令部、淞沪重庆警备司令,分别致电函京沪渝中共代表,所有中共人员限期全部撤退". 大公报. Chongqing. 1 March 1947.
- ISBN 0-8047-4478-5.
- ^ Wilbur, Clarence Martin. The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923–1928. Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 190.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-009-29761-5.
- ISBN 9780231204477.
- ^ Sun Jian, pp. 1059–1071
- ^ Sun Jian, p. 1353.
- ^ a b Sun Jian, p. 1089.
- ^ http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/cg/lt/rb/608/608PDF/cyo.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c091-200411073.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ Sun Jian, pp. 615–616.
- ^ Sun Jian, p. 1319
- ^ Sun Jian, pp. 1237–1240.
- ^ Sun Jian, pp. 617–618
- ISBN 978-1-5036-0952-5.
- ISBN 0-275-98131-2.
Basic literacy came to most of the school-aged populace by the end of the Japanese tenure on Taiwan. School attendance for Taiwanese children rose steadily throughout the Japanese era, from 3.8 percent in 1904 to 13.1 percent in 1917; 25.1 percent in 1920; 41.5 percent in 1935; 57.6 percent in 1940; and 71.3 percent in 1943.
Sources
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- Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (1970) 3: 170–189, complete text online
- Dreyer, Edward L. China at War, 1901–1949. (1995). 422 pp. [ISBN missing]
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- Gordon, David M. "The China-Japan War, 1931–1945," The Journal of Military History v70#1 (2006) 137–182; major historiographical overview of all important books and interpretations; online
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- Hsi-sheng, Ch'i. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945 (1982) [ISBN missing]
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External links
- Media related to Nationalist Government (China) at Wikimedia Commons