Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

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Native American pottery
)

Musée du quai Branly
, ca. 100—700 CE, 16 x 29 x 22 cm
Jane Osti of the Cherokee Nation, with her award-winning pottery, in 2006
Jane Osti (Cherokee Nation), with her award-winning pottery, 2006

Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas is an art form with at least a 7500-year history in

the Americas.[1] Pottery is fired ceramics with clay as a component. Ceramics are used for utilitarian cooking vessels, serving and storage vessels, pipes, funerary urns, censers
, musical instruments, ceremonial items, masks, toys, sculptures, and a myriad of other art forms.

Due to their resilience, ceramics have been key to learning more about

pre-Columbian Indigenous cultures
.

Materials and techniques

Hopi Pueblo ceramic tile from the late 19th-early 20th century, in the Brooklyn Museum
Tile, Hopi Pueblo (Native American), late 19th-early 20th century, Brooklyn Museum

The

clay body is a necessary component of pottery. Clay must be mined and purified in an often laborious process, and certain tribes have ceremonial protocols to gathering clay. Different tribes have different processes for processing clay, which can include drying in the sun, soaking in water for days, and repeatedly running through a screen or sieve. Acoma and other Pueblo pottery traditionally pound dry clay into a powder and then remove impurities by hand, then running the dry powder through a screen, mixing it with a dry temper, and then mixing water to create a plastic paste.[2] In preparing the clay, potters spend hours wedging it to remove air pockets and humidity that could easily cause it to explode during firing. The clay then needs to "cure" over time.[3]

American Southwest employed the paddle-and-anvil technique, in which the interior clay wall of a pot was supported by an anvil, while the exterior was beaten with a paddle, smoothing the surface.[4]
In precontact South America, ceramics were mass-produced using molds.

Eastern Woodlands
, Mayan potters in Mesoamerica, and others, which involves covering the ceramic piece in beeswax or another resist, incising a design in the resist, then soaking the piece with a slip. In the firing process the resists melts away, leaving the colored design.

While still green, pottery can be incised with designs. Cords, textiles, baskets, and corncobs have been rolled over wet clay, both as a decoration and to improve heat dispersion in cooking pots. Carved wood or ceramic stamping paddles are used throughout the

Southeastern Woodlands
to create repeating designs. Clay can also be added to the main ceramic structure to build up designs.

Before firing, ceramics can be burnished or polished to a fine sheen with a smooth instrument, usually a stone. Glazes are seldom used by indigenous American ceramic artists. Grease can be rubbed onto the pot as well.[2]

Prior to contact, pottery was usually open-air fired or pit fired; precontact Indigenous peoples of Mexico used kilns extensively. Today many Native American ceramic artists use kilns. In pit-firing, the pot is placed in a shallow pit dug into the earth along with other unfired pottery, covered with wood and brush, or dung, then set on fire whereupon it can harden at temperatures of 1400 degrees or more. Finally, the ceramics surface is often polished with smooth stones.

Tempers

Tempers are non-plastic materials added to clay to prevent shrinkage and cracking during drying and firing of vessels made from the clay.[6] Tempers may include:

Not all Indigenous American pottery requires added tempers; some

Picuris Pueblo, and Hopi pottery,[2] and sponge spicules in the clay used to produce the "chalky ware" of the St. Johns culture.[15]

Ceramics are often used to identify

Bahamas were characterized by crushed conch shell tempering, as opposed to the quartz sand-tempered ware imported from Hispaniola.[20]

The choice of temper used in ceramics was constrained by what was available, but changes in the choice of temper can provide clues to influence and trade relations between groups. Shell-tempered ware was produced sporadically in various places across the eastern United States, but in the late

Mississippi Valley and middle gulf coast, and a major defining characteristic of Mississippian culture pottery.[21][22]

Origin and spread

The earliest ceramics known from the Americas have been found in the lower

sherds at Taperinho were shell-tempered, which allowed the sherds themselves to be radiocarbon dated. These first ceramics-making cultures were fishers and shellfish-gatherers.[25]

Ceramics appeared next across northern South America and then down the western side of South America and northward through Mesoamerica. Ceramics of the Alaka culture in Guyana have been dated to 6,000 to 4,500 years ago.[25] Ceramics of the San Jacinto culture in Colombia have been dated to about 4530 BCE, and at Puerto Hormiga, also in Colombia, to about 3794 BCE. Ceramics appeared in the Valdivia culture in Ecuador around 3200 BCE, and in the Pandanche culture in Peru around 2460 BCE.[26]

The spread of ceramics in Mesoamerica came later. Ceramics from Monagrillo in Panama have been dated to around 2140 BCE, from Tronadora in Costa Rica to around 1890 BCE, and from Barra in the Soconusco of Chiapas to around 1900 BCE. Ceramics of the Purrón tradition in southcentral Mexico have been dated to around 1805 BCE, and from the Chajil tradition of northcentral Mexico, to around 1600 BCE.[26]

The appearance of ceramics in the

Orange and Norwood cultures in northern Florida to around 2460 BCE (4300 BP) (all older than any other dated ceramics from north of Colombia). Ceramics appeared later elsewhere in North America. Ceramics reached southern Florida (Mount Elizabeth) by 4000 BP, Nebo Hill (in Missouri) by 3700 BP, and Poverty Point (in Louisiana) by 3400 BP.[26][27]


Cultural regions

North America

Arctic

Several

Caribou Inuit (Qaernerimiut) created utilitarian pottery in historic times,[28] primarily to store food. In Rankin Inlet, Nunavut, Canada, when the mine that employed much of the community closed down, the national government created the Rankin Inlet Ceramics Project, whose wares were successfully exhibited in Toronto in 1967. The project foundered but a local gallery revived interest in Inuit ceramics in the 1990s.[29]

Eastern Woodlands

Southeastern Woodlands

Geological studies show that certain areas of the southeastern portion of North America are rich in kaolins and ball clays (Hosterman, USGS),[clarification needed] the types of plastic clays best suited for pottery. Clay beds which still produce ceramic clays are from primary and secondary deposits formed in the Late Paleocene and Early Miocene Epochs in formations that formed the Gulf Coastal Plain. According to all geological surveys the entire southeastern portion of the continent has abundant clay deposits, with the exception of all of south Florida and a portion of western central Florida (Calver) (Matson).[clarification needed]

Fiber-tempered ceramics associated with

Orange culture in northeast Florida has been dated to 2000 BC or a bit earlier.[32][33] Fiber-tempered pottery of very similar form spread along coasts and river valleys of the Southeastern United States from the Atlantic coast into Alabama, reaching northwestern Florida (Norwood culture) and the Gulf coast by 1300 BC, the interior Middle South by 1100, and Poverty Point by 1000 BC.[34][35]

Thoms Creek ceramics closely resembled Stallings ceramics, but used more sand and less fiber as temper than Stalling or Orange ware. Thoms Creek ceramics were largely contemporary with Stalling and Orange ceramics, although no Thoms Creek ceramics have been found that are as early as the earliest Stallings. Thoms Creek ceramics overlapped Stallings ceramics in northern Georgia and southern South Carolina, but were the dominant tradition north of the Santee River into North Carolina.[36]

The similarities of the Stallings series ceramics to the earlier Puerto Hormiga ceramics of Colombia, which were both associated with shell rings, and the presence of winds and ocean currents favoring journeys from South America to the Southeastern United States, led James A. Ford, among other archaeologists, to offer the hypothesis that the two areas had connections, and that the technology of fiber-tempered ceramics in the southeastern United States had been imported from Colombia. Other archaeologists have noted that there are no known archaeological sites between Colombia and Florida that are of a type or age consistent with such connections, and that the cultural traditions of the Southeastern United States show no significant changes associated with the appearance of ceramics, indicating that there was no migration or people, and no transfer of technology or other elements of culture, other than the appearance of ceramics.[37]

Later significant developments in ceramics in the Southeastern Woodlands included

Weedon Island pottery, a style of pottery used primarily in ceremonial contexts and high status burials, produced and traded along the Gulf of Mexico coast from southwestern Florida to the Florida panhandle
.

Great Basin

Paiute and Washoe people in the western Great Basin developed plain, utilitarian ceramics separately, which was not burnished but occasionally featured red painted designs. The Owens Valley Brown Ware is an example of Paiute/Washoe ceramics, which was used for cooking, food storage, and water jugs. The jugs often featured clay handles that accommodated carrying straps.[38]

Southwestern cultures (Oasisamerica)

Main article: Art_of_the_American_Southwest § Pottery

Pueblo cultures

Black-on-white jar, with geometric figure c. 1100-1300, from Kayenta, Arizona, on display at the California Academy of Sciences
Black-on-white jar, ca. 1100-1300, from Kayenta, Arizona, on display at the California Academy of Sciences
Pueblo III
phase
Deer effigy, pottery. Cochiti, New Mexico
Deer effigy, pottery. Cochiti Pueblo
Further information:
Storyteller doll, and Pueblo pottery
Pottery style Time period
Late Basketmaker II Era 50 BCE – 450 CE
Basketmaker III Era 450 CE – 700 CE
Pueblo I Era
 700–900
Pueblo II Era
 900–1100
Pueblo III Era
 1100–1300
Pueblo IV Era
 1300–1600
Historic 1600–1880
Modern 1880–1950
Contemporary 1950–present[39]

O'odham cultures

Athabaskan

Southern Athabaskans include the

Navajo
.

Other
funerary urn

Mesoamerican pottery

Circum-Caribbean

Antilles

Ceramics first appeared in the

Current Era. Cedrosan Saladoid vessels have a distinctive bell shape with "zone-incised cross-hatching". Many also have complex designs of white on red paint. Later examples were decorated with purple, black, yellow and orange paint. These ceramics are described as "technologically fine, delicate, and graceful."[40][41]

Other ceramics styles are also known from the Antilles during this time period. Barrancoid trade wares, of a style that had developed in the Orinoco River valley around 1000 BC, have been found in the southernmost Antilles; Trinidad,

Saint Vincent. A variant of Saladoid ceramics called Huecan has been found from the north coast of Venezuela to Puerto Rico.[42]

Colombia and Venezuela

Fiber-tempered ceramics associated with shell middens left by hunter-fisher-gatherers of the Early Northwest South American Literature appeared at sites such as Puerto Hormiga, Monsú, Puerto Chacho, and San Jacinto in Colombia by 3100 BCE. Fiber-tempered ceramics at Monsú have been dated to 5940 radiocarbon years before present. The fiber-tempered pottery at Puerto Hormiga was "crude", formed from a single lump of clay. The fiber-tempered pottery at San Jacinto is described as "well-made". Sand-tempered coiled ceramics have also been found at Puerto Horrible.[37][43][44]

Chibcha designs. Ceramic mobiles, nativity scenes, and animal figurines are popular, especially ceramic horses, which have been the symbol of Colombian pottery.[45]

La Chamba in the Tolima Department is known for its blackware. The women potters here also create brown and red ware.[46]

Andean region

Further information: Huaco (pottery)
Moche Crawling Feline, a stirrup spout vessel with shell inlay, from c. 100–800 CE
Moche Crawling Feline, a stirrup spout vessel with shell inlay, c. 100–800 CE

In the Andes, great civilizations had been created and flourished for thousands of years during the Andean preceramic period. Yet the ceramics appear only during the Initial Period around 1800 BCE. Their main purpose may have been for boiling agricultural produce.[47]

The earliest ceramics in the Andean area have been radiocarbon dated to about 1800 BC, although according to John H. Rowe the date may go back even to 2100 BC. Early ceramics have been found on the central coast at the large settlement of Las Haldas, at Huarmey, as well as at some other sites in the Casma River region, and in Lima area.[48]

Chavín potters (900–200 BC) on the Peruvian coast created distinctive stirrup spout vessels, both incised and highly burnished. These thin-walled effigy pots were fashioned to resemble stylized humans, plants, and animals. Two substyles of Chavín stirrup spout pots include the thicker-walls, glossy-on-matte blackware Cupisnique style and red and black Santa Ana style, both featuring fanged heads.[49] Subsequent Andean cultures revived these ancient ceramics styles and imagery.[50]

double spout-and-bridge vessel and distinctive masks portraying a supernatural "Oculate Being," that combines human, owl, and double-headed snake forms.[51]

Nasca culture, another south coastal Peruvian culture, returned to the less fragile practice slip-painted their ceramics prior to firing. They created thirteen distinct colors, the larger palette found in Pre-Columbian ceramics in the Americas, which included rare pale purple, maroon, and bluish-grey. Nasca artists created ceremonial and utilitarian bowls and beakers, effigy jars, panpipes, and vessels of new designs, including the stepped-fret. These combined sculptural elements with surface painting, often with curvilinear designs emphasized by bold, black outlining. Painters used revolving turntables to paint all sides of a ceramic piece.[52]

Museum zu Allerheiligen
, Switzerland

Dominating Peru's north coast from 1–600 CE, the

naturalistic, i.e. faithfully representational, artwork of the precolumbian Americas. Moche portrait vessel were so realistic that individuals portrayed at different stages of their life are identifiable. Their paintings on ceramics were narrative and action-packed. Ceramics produced by two-press molds were identical in shape but individualized through unique surface painting. Tens of thousands of Moche ceramics have survived today. The stirrup-spout vessel continued to be the most common form of clay vessel, but Moche artists also created bowls, dippers, jars with long necks, spout-and-handle vessels, and double-chambered vessels that whistled when liquid was poured. Vessels were often effigies portraying elaborate scenes. A fineline painting tradition emerged, which resembles Greek black-figure pottery.[53] A 29,000-square-foot Moche ceramics workshop with numerous kilns was discovered in at the mountain Mayal in the Chicama Valley. The workshop specialized in female figurines.[54]

The Tiwanaku and Wari cultures shared dominance of the Andes, roughly from 500 to 1000 BCE. The Tiwanaku civilizations originated in Lake Titicaca region of Bolivia, and a staff-bearing deity figured largely in their artwork.[55] Tiwanaku artists continued the tradition of naturalistic, ceramic portrait vessels.[56] The ubiquitous Wari ceramics carried over imagery from their textiles and metalwork, such as llama and alpaca imagery. Qunchupata in Peru was the epicenter of Wari ceramic production, featuring pit kilns and firing rooms. The stone floors of the firing rooms had rounded depressions for accommodating larger pots. Some Wari palaces had their own attached kilns. Broken potsherds were used as forms for building new pots and for scrapers. Evidence shows ceramics were often ritually destroyed.[57]

Four Andean civilizations flourished in Late Intermediate Period: the

Lambayeque, and Ica. Luxury goods, including elaborate ceramics, were mass-produced in vast quantities for the middle class as well as nobles. Identical ceramics created in molds took sway over individualized works.[58] The Lambayeque culture of north coastal Peru created press-molded reliefs on blackware ceramics.[59] Chimú ceramics, also predominantly blackware, often featured zoomorphic appliqués, such as monkeys or sea birds. They excelled at the doubled-chambered whistling vessels.[60] Chancay ceramics, from the central coast, featured black-on-white designs on unique shapes, such as female effigies or elongated, oval jars. Their sand-tempered ceramics were hastily painted and left unpolished.[61] Ica culture ceramics, from the southern coasts, were the finest quality of their time. They were still handcrafted and had a wide range of polychrome slips, including black, maroon, orange, purple, red, white, and a glittery deep purple. Designs were abstract and geometric.[62]

The

Tawantinsuyo spanned 3500 miles and controlled the world's largest empire by 1500 CE. Artistically, they unified regional styles. Incan ceramics were geometric and understated, while color schemes remained regionally diverse.[63] Mass-produced pottery, conformed to standardized measurements, such as the urpu, a long-necked jar with handles and a pointed bottom used to transport maize and chicha, maize beer. Qirus were Incan drinking vessels, made from wood or precious metals, as well as ceramics.[64]

Moche warrior pot, c. 100–700 CE, from the British Museum
Moche warrior pot, c. 100–700 CE, British Museum
Andean cultural horizons Time period Cultures/sites
Lithic 10,000–3,000 BCE Guitarrero Cave
Cotton Pre-Ceramic
 3000–1800 BCE
Norte Chico civilization, Huaca Prieta, Las Haldas
Initial Period 1800–800 BCE Chinchorro, Las Haldas
Early Horizon 800–200 BCE Cupisnique, Paracas, Chavín, Pukará
Early Intermediate Period 200 BCE–500 CE
Nasca, Recuay, Huarpa, Tiwanaku
Middle Horizon 500–900 CE
Lambayeque, Ica, Wari, Tiwanaku
Late Intermediate Period 900–1400 CE
Inca
Late Horizon 1400–1534 Inca[65]
Historical 1534–1950
Indigenous peoples of the Andes
Contemporary 1950–present
Indigenous peoples of the Andes

Gran Chaco

Doña Rosa Brítez with her blackware pottery seated on plastic chair
Doña Rosa Brítez with her blackware pottery

Josefina Pla observed that women are typically potters, and animals associated with men are not represented in Guaraní pottery.[66]

Tobatí, a city near Asunción, Paraguay, is renowned for its ceramics, including tiles and female effigy jars, known as Las gorgas. A reddish-brown slip, known as tapyta in Guaraní, is popular, with blackware being less common.[67] A local ceramic artist, Don Zenón Páez (b. 1927) became famous for his ceramic figures of saints.

Itá, Paraguay is another ceramic center, known for its whimsical, ceramic chickens.[68] Rosa Brítez (b. 1941) is a famous ceramic artist from Itá and has been recognized by UNESCO.

The Museo del Barro, "Museum of Clay," in Asunción features pottery from the Gran Chaco, from Pre-Columbian Guaraní to contemporary mestizo ceramics.[69]

Amazonia

Cylindrical vessel. with incised geometric design Marajo island, Brazil, Joanes style, Marajoara phase, 400–1000 CE
Cylindrical vessel. Marajo island, Brazil, Joanes style, Marajoara phase, 400–1000 CE

The pottery tradition at

Licania octandra, provided tempering material.[71]

In regions of terra preta, or "black earth", of the Amazon rainforest, an abundance of potsherds were used to develop the soil and build mounds, which protected buildings and cemeteries from seasonal flooding.[72]

Marajoara Phase of polychrome ceramics last from around 400 to 1300 CE. In the central Amazon, the Mancapuru Phase, or Incised Rim Tradition, emerged in the 5th century CE.[73] Marajoara ceramics, typically tempered with grog,[71] were complex effigies of humans and animals, such as reptiles and birds.[72]
The dead were cremated and buried in elaborate ceramic urns. Ceramic artists are active in Marajó, using precontact styles for inspiration.

Women have traditionally been the ceramic artists in the Amazon. Female figures are common in anthropomorphic effigy vessels. Tangas are a unique Amazonian cultural item; they are triangular, concave ceramic pubic coverings held in place by strings, once worn by women of several Amazonian tribes. Today, they are still worn by girls during their puberty rites among Panoan-speaking peoples.[74]

Ceramics forms

See also

Notes

  1. potsherds found at Rabbit Mount near the lower Savannah River in South Carolina have been dated to 4465 ± 95 and 4450 ± 150 radiocarbon years before present.[31]

References

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Bibliography

External links

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