Native Hawaiians
Kānaka Maoli, Hawaiʻi Maoli | |
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Hawaiʻi Sign Language (HSL) | |
Religion | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Pacific Islander Americans, Tahitians, other Polynesians |
Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians; Hawaiian: kānaka, kānaka ʻōiwi, Kānaka Maoli, and Hawaiʻi maoli) are the indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands.
Hawaii was settled at least 800 years ago by Polynesians who sailed from the Society Islands. The settlers gradually became detached from their homeland and developed a distinct Hawaiian culture and identity in their new home. They created new religious and cultural structures, in response to their new circumstances and to pass knowledge from one generation to the next. Hence, the Hawaiian religion focuses on ways to live and relate to the land and instills a sense of community.
The
In the 2010 U.S. census, people with Native Hawaiian ancestry were reported to be residents in all 50 of the U.S. States, as well as Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico.[1] Within the U.S. in 2010 540,013 residents reported Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ancestry alone, of which 135,422 lived in Hawaii.[1] In the United States overall, 1.2 million people identified as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, either alone or in combination with one or more other races.[1] The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander population was one of the fastest-growing groups between 2000 and 2010.[1]
History
The history of Kānaka Maoli, like the history of Hawaii, is commonly broken into four major periods:
- the pre-unification period (before c. 1800)
- the unified monarchy and republic period (c. 1800 to 1898)
- the U.S. territorial period (1898 to 1959)
- the U.S. statehood period (1959 to present)
Origins
One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaii in the 3rd century from the
.Some writers claim that earlier settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians, although similar stories exist throughout Polynesia.[6]
Demographics
At the time of Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000. This was the peak of the Native Hawaiian population. During the first century after contact, Kānaka Maoli were nearly wiped out by diseases brought by immigrants and visitors. Kānaka Maoli had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, among others. These diseases were similarly catastrophic to indigenous populations in the Americas.
The current 293,000 include dual lineage Native Hawaiian and mixed lineage/multi-racial people. This was the highest number of any Kānaka Maoli living on the island until 2014, a period of almost 226 years. This long spread was marked by an initial die-off of 1-in-17, which would gradually increase to almost 8–10 dying from contact to the low point in 1950.
The 1900 U.S. census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial Native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U.S. census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, showing steady growth trend over the century. This rapid increase in population has also occurred outside of the island, with many of the populations in California and Washington experiencing dramatic increases in total population. This has been part of the larger Hawaiian cultural revival and reflects an important resurgence in the presence of Kānaka Maoli in the fabric of modern island life.
Some Hawaiians left the islands during the period of the Hawaiian Kingdom. For example, Harry Maitey became the first Hawaiian in Prussia.
Culture and arts
Several cultural preservation societies and organizations were established. The largest is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, established in 1889 and designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. The museum houses the largest collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, documents, and other information. The museum has links with major colleges and universities throughout the world to facilitate research.
The Polynesian Voyaging Society reignited interest in Polynesian sailing techniques, both in ship construction and in instrument-free navigation. The Society built multiple double-hulled canoes, beginning with Hōkūleʻa and followed by Makali'i, Alingano Maisu, and Mo‘okiha O Pi‘ilani.[7] The canoes and their worldwide voyages contributed to the renewal and appreciation of Hawaiian culture.[8]
Religion and society
Native Hawaiian culture grew from their Polynesian roots, creating a local religion and cultural practices. This new worship centered on the ideas of land (aina) and family (ohana). Land became a sacred part of life and family.[9] Hawaiian religion is polytheistic, but mostly focuses on the gods Wākea and Papahānaumoku, the mother and father of the Hawaiian islands. Their stillborn child formed the deep roots of Hawaii, and whose second child, Hāloa, is the god from whom all Hawaiians originate.[9]
Hawaiian culture is caste-oriented, with specific roles based on social standing. Caste roles are reflected in how land was controlled.
Land tenure
Each island was divided into moku, which were given to people of high standing and kept within the family. Each moku was split into smaller ahupua'a, each of which extended from the sea to the top of the nearest mountain. This was to ensure that each ahupua'a provided all necessary resources for survival, including hardwoods and food sources.[10] Each ahupua'a was managed by managers, who were charged by the island chief to collect tributes from the residents. Splits of the ahupua'a were based on the level of tribute. The major subdivisions were 'Ili. Each 'Ili gave a tribute to the chief of the ahupua'a and another to the island chief. In contrast to the European system of feudalism,[10] Hawaiian peasants were never bound to the land and were free to move as they chose.[11]
Kānaka Maoli refer to themselves as kama'aina, a word meaning "people of the land", because of their connection to and stewardship of the land. It was also part of the spiritual belief system that attributes their origin to the land itself.[12] This is reinforced by the cultivation of taro, a plant that is said to be the manifestation of Hāloa. The represents the deep roots that tether Hawaiians to the islands, as well as symbolizing the branching networks that Hawaiian people created.[12]
Hula
Hula is one of Hawai'is best-known indigenous artforms. Traditionally, hula was a ritualistic dance performed to honor the gods and goddesses.[13] Hula is typically categorized as either Hula Kahiko or Hula ʻAuana. Each hula tells a story via its movements and gestures.[citation needed]
Hula Kahiko is a traditional style. Its interpretive dance is known for its grace and romantic feel. Dances are accompanied by percussion instruments and traditional chanting. The traditional instruments include the pahu hula, kilu or puniu, ipu, hano or ʻphe hano ihu, ka, pu, oeoe, pahupahu kaʻekeʻeke, hokio, and wi. Dancers add to the effect using ʻuli, puʻili, ʻiliʻili, papahehi, and kalaʻau.[14]
Hula ʻAuana was influenced by later Western factors. It is accompanied by non-traditional musical instruments and colorful outfits. It became popularized with tourists and it is this form that is most widely practiced beyond the islands. Ukuleles and guitars are common.
Holidays
The Hawaiian people celebrate traditions and holidays. The most popular form of celebration in Hawaii is the
One of the most important holidays is Prince Kuhio Day. Celebrated every year since 1949 on his birthday (March 26), the holiday honors Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, a Congressman who succeeded in helping Native Hawaiian families become landowners. It is celebrated with canoe races and luaus across the islands.[16] Every June 11 Kānaka Maoli celebrate King Kamehameha day. Kamehameha I was the king who unified the islands and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. He was known as a fearless warrior, wise diplomat, and the most respected leader in the history of the Hawaiian monarchy. The holiday is celebrated with parades and lei draping ceremonies, where Kānaka Maoli bring lei (flower necklaces) to King Kamehameha statues located across the islands and drape them from his cast bronze arms and neck to honor his contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.[17]
Hawaiian cultural revival
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2024) |
Native Hawaiian culture underwent a
Hawaiian culture was introduced into Hawaiʻi's public schools, teaching Hawaiian art, lifestyle, geography, hula, and Hawaiian language. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to teach Hawaiian history to all their students.
Many aspects of Hawaiian culture were commercialized to appeal to visitors from around the world.[18] This includes hula, use of the word "Aloha", lei, and the assimilation of Hawaiian culture into non-native lifestyles. This has provided significant financial support for cultural practices, while emphasizing aspects that have popular appeal over those that respect tradition.
Statutes and charter amendments were passed acknowledging a policy of preference for Hawaiian place and street names. For example, with the closure of
Activism
While Native Hawaiian protest has a long history, beginning just after the
Hawaiian language
Hawaiian Traditional Language
The Hawaiian language (or ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi) was once the language of native Hawaiian people; today, Kānaka Maoli predominantly speak
ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi later became an official language of the State of Hawaii, alongside English. The state enacted a program of cultural preservation in 1978. Programs included Hawaiian language immersion schools, and a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Ever since, Hawaiian language fluency has climbed among all races.[22]
In 2006, the
Hawaiian is the primary language of the residents of
Hawai'i Sign Language
Alongside 'Ōlelo Hawai'i, some Maoli spoke the little studied Hawai'i Sign Language.[26]
Education
In
Kānaka Maoli are eligible for an education from Kamehameha Schools (KS), established through the last will and testament of Bernice Pauahi Bishop of the Kamehameha Dynasty. The largest and wealthiest private school system in the United States, KS was intended to benefit orphans and the needy, with preference given to Kānaka Maoli. The schools educate thousands of children of native Hawaiian children ancestry and offers summer and off-campus programs not restricted by ancestry. KS practice of accepting primarily gifted students, has been controversial in the native Hawaiian community. Many families feel that gifted students could excel anywhere, and that the Hawaiian community would be better served by educating disadvantaged children to help them become responsible community contributors.[27]
Many Kānaka Maoli attend public schools or other private schools.
Office of Hawaiian Affairs
The Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) is a self-governing corporate body of the State of Hawaii created by the 1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention.[28][29]
OHA's mandate is to advance the education, health, housing and economics (Kānaka Maoli) Native Hawaiians. It relies on ʻohana, moʻomeheu and ʻāina to effect change. OHA conducts research and advocacy to shape public policies. OHA works with communities to share information and build public support for Hawaiian issues.[30]
OHA was given control over certain public lands, and acquired other land-holdings for the provision of housing, supporting agriculture, and supporting cultural institutions.[31] The lands initially given to OHA were originally crown lands of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, which had gone through various forms of public ownership since the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.
OHA is a semi-autonomous government body administered by a nine-member board of trustees, elected by the people of the State of Hawaiʻi through popular suffrage.Federal developments
United States annexation
In 1893, during the
The event was challenged by Grover Cleveland, but was eventually supported by President William McKinley in his Manifest Destiny plan, which harmed indigenous peoples in the continental United States and Hawai'i. The change left Kānaka Maoli as the only major indigenous group with no "nation-to-nation" negotiation status and without any degree of self determination.[35]
Native American Programs Act
In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to include Kānaka Maoli. This paved the way for Kānaka Maoli to become eligible for some federal assistance programs originally intended for continental Native Americans. Today, Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62 defines a Native Hawaiian as "an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778".[36]
United States apology resolution
On November 23, 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103–150, also known as the Apology Resolution, which had previously passed Congress. This resolution "apologizes to Kānaka Maoli on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii".[37]
Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009
In the early 2000s, the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill (Akaka bill), an attempt to
A Ward Research poll commissioned in 2003 by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs reported that "Eighty-six percent of the 303 Hawaiian residents polled by Ward Research said 'yes.' Only 7 percent said 'no,' with 6 percent unsure ... Of the 301 non-Hawaiians polled, almost eight in 10 (78 percent) supported federal recognition, 16 percent opposed it, with 6 percent unsure."
The bill did not pass.
Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law
In 2005, with the support of U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye, federal funding through the Native Hawaiian Education Act created the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at UH Mānoa William S. Richardson School of Law. The program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law.
Ka Huli Ao focuses on research, scholarship, and community outreach. Ka Huli Ao maintains a social media presence and provides law students with summer fellowships. Law school graduates are eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships.
Department of Interior Self-Governance Proposal
In 2016, the Department of Interior (DOI), under the direction of Secretary Sally Jewell, started the process of recognizing the Hawaiians' right to self governance and the ability for nation-to-nation negotiation status and rights.[40] This created opposition from the Hawaiian Sovereignty movement who believed that Kānaka Maoli should not have to navigate US structures to regain sovereignty and viewed the process as incomplete.[41] The outcome ultimately allowed nation-to-nation relationships if Kānaka Maoli created their own government and sought that relationship.[42] The government formation process was stopped by Justice Anthony Kennedy,[citation needed] using his earlier precedent in Rice v. Cayetano that "ancestry was a proxy for race" in ancestry-based elections, but the voting itself was not stopped.
Violence Against Women Act
In December 2022, the Violence Against Women Act was amended to include Kānaka Maoli survivors of gender-based violence and Native Hawaiian organizations in grant funding.[43]
Notable Kānaka Maoli
In 1873, the first Kānaka Maoli were given permission from
See also
- Culture of Hawaii
- Hawaiian home land
- Hawaiian kinship
- Hawaiian sovereignty movement
- History of Hawaii
- Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
References
- ^ a b c d e The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population: 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2012. https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-12.pdf
- ^ Hixson, Linsday; Hepler, Bradford; Ouk Kim, Myoung (May 2012). 2010 Census Brief, The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population: 2010 (PDF) (Report). United States Census Bureau. p. 15. C2010BR-12. Retrieved March 10, 2019. "There were 156,000 people who reported Native Hawaiian with no additional detailed NHPI group or race group and an additional 371,000 people who reported Native Hawaiian in combination with one or more other races and/or detailed NHPI groups. Thus, a total of 527,000 people reported Native Hawaiian alone or in any combination."
- ^ {{url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Ethnic%20origin&TABID=1%7Ctitle=Census Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=Statistics Canada}}
- ^ "2018 Census ethnic group summaries | Stats NZ".
- OCLC 57218655.
- OCLC 5773353.
- ^ Goldman, Rita (September 21, 2013). "Hawaiian Voyaging Canoe | Maui Canoe | Mo'okiha". Maui No Ka Oi Magazine. Retrieved February 4, 2024.
- ^ Unattributed (July 25, 2007). "Hawaiian Cultural Heritage". Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (in American English and Hawaiian). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008. Retrieved September 6, 2008. Discusses Hōkūleʻa's Navigating Change voyage which also raised consciousness of the interdependence of Hawaiians, their environment, and their culture.
- ^ a b "A Peek at the Native Hawaiian Culture, History, and Beliefs". US Travelia. May 11, 2015. Retrieved November 7, 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8248-4517-9, retrieved November 7, 2020
- ^ Steele, Claire Hiwahiwa (2015). He Aliʻi Ka ʻĀina; He Kauwā ke Kanaka (The Land Is Chief; Man Is Its Servant): Traditional Hawaiian Resource Stewardship and the Transformation of the Konohiki. Honolulu, HI: M.A. Thesis, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. p. 21.
- ^ JSTOR 1229037.
- ^ "The History Of The Hula Dance". EverydayHealth.com. Retrieved September 1, 2019.
- ^ "Instruments | Ka'Imi Na'auao O Hawai'i Nei Institute". Retrieved September 1, 2019.
- ^ "Hawaiian luau". www.to-hawaii.com. Retrieved February 4, 2024.
- ^ "Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole Day 2024 in the United States". www.timeanddate.com. Retrieved February 4, 2024.
- ^ "King Kamehameha Day". hawaii.com. Archived from the original on September 2, 2019. Retrieved September 2, 2019.
- ^ Trask, Haunani-Kay (1991). "Lovely Hula Lands: Corporate Tourism and the Prostitution of Hawaiian Culture". Border/Lines (23).
- ^ "Mauna Kea Is The Latest In Long History Of Native Hawaiian Protests". Honolulu Civil Beat. August 30, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
- ^ ProQuest 304242908.(Subscription required.)
- OCLC 226379163. Archived from the originalon June 5, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
- ^ Goo, Sara Kehaulani (June 22, 2019). "The Hawaiian Language Nearly Died. A Radio Show Sparked Its Revival". NPR. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
- ^ Hansen, Liane (May 23, 2002). "Master's Degree in Hawaiian". npr.org.
- ^ Thompson, Rod (January 2, 2007). "UH offers first Ph.D. in a native language". archives.starbulletin.com. Retrieved August 6, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-19-508116-9.
- ^ "Linguists say Hawaii Sign Language found to be distinct language". Washington Post. March 1, 2013. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved March 9, 2013.
- ^ Roth, Randall W. (2002). "Economics of Non-Profit Accounting : The Kamehameha Schools Admissions Policy Controversy". International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law. 5 (1).
- ISBN 978-90-04-26172-3.
- ^ No. 07-1372 State of Hawaii v. OHA Brief of the Sovereign Councils of the Hawaiian Homelands Assembly, Na'a'ahuhiwa, the Native Hawaiian Bar Association Hui Kako'o 'Aina Ho'o Pula'pulai, and 'ahahui o Hawaii as AMICI CURIAE in support of respondents (Report). University of Hawaiʻi School of Law Library. Footnote 4.
The Hawaii Supreme Court has described OHA as a 'self-governing corporate body'…
- ^ "What We Do". The Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA). Retrieved February 4, 2024.
- ^ Boyd, Manu (July 3, 2006). "OHA gains Waimea Valley title". Honolulu, HI, USA: Office of Hawaiian Affairs. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
- ^ "Americans overthrow Hawaiian monarchy". HISTORY. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ Russo, Carla Herreria (May 31, 2018). "Land, Loss And Love: The Toll Of Westernization On Native Hawaiians". HuffPost. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ "Untitled Document". www.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ "Manifest Destiny and the Pacific". gorhistory.com. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ "42 USC 2992c: Definitions". Office of the Law Revision Counsel United States Code. Retrieved November 3, 2021.
- ^ s:US Public Law 103-150
- . Retrieved June 2, 2012.
- Grassroot Institute of Hawaii. Archived from the original(PDF) on December 23, 2010. Retrieved June 2, 2012.
- ^ "Dept. of Interior finalizes rule to recognize native Hawaiian government". NBC News. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ Beat, Chad Blair Civil (September 23, 2016). "Feds Lay Out 'Pathway' To Native Hawaiian Self-Governance". HuffPost. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ "Native Hawaiians Divided on Federal Recognition | Voice of America - English". www.voanews.com. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
- ^ Lou, Alicia (December 31, 2022). "Native Hawaiian Domestic Violence Survivors Now Eligible For Federal Funding". Honolulu Civil Beat.
Further reading
- Maenette K. Nee-Benham and Ronald H. Heck, Culture and Educational Policy in Hawaiʻi: The Silencing of Native Voices, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998
- Scott Cunningham, Hawaiian Magic and Spirituality, Llewellyn Worldwide, Ltd., 2000
- Rona Tamiko Tamiko Halualani, In the Name of Hawaiians: Native Identities and Cultural Politics, University of Minnesota Press, 2002
- Marshall D. Sahlins, How Natives Think: About Captain Cook, for Example, University of Chicago Press, 1995
- Thomas G. Thrum, Hawaiian Folk Tales: A Collection of Native Legends, International Law & Taxation Publishers, 2001
- Thomas G. Thrum, More Hawaiian Folk Tales: A Collection of Native Legends and Traditions, International Law & Taxation Publishers, 2001
- Houston Wood, Displacing Natives: The Rhetorical Production of Hawaiʻi, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999
- Kanalu G. Terry Young Rethinking the Native Hawaiian Past, Taylor & Francis, Inc., 1998
- Hanifin, Patrick (2002). "To Dwell on the Earth in Unity: Rice, Arakaki, and the Growth of Citizenship and Voting Rights in Hawaii" (PDF).
- Hanifin, Patrick W. (1982). "Hawaiian Reparations: Nothing Lost, Nothing Owed" (PDF).
- Kauanoe, Derek; Breann Swann Nuuhiwa (May 11, 2012). "We are Who We Thought We Were: Congress' Authority to Recognize a Native Hawaiian Polity United by Common Descent". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal. 13 (2): 117. SSRN 2126441.
- Garcia, Ryan William Nohea (April 14, 2010). "Who Is Hawaiian, What Begets Federal Recognition, and How Much Blood Matters" (PDF). Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal. 11 (2). Honolulu, HI, USA: SSRN 1758956.
External links
- Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA)
- Council for Native Hawaiian Advancement
- Ka Huli Ao Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law official website
- Ka Huli Ao Blog
- U.S. Census Bureau. "Newsroom: Facts on the the [sic] Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population". Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved June 2, 2012.