Natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas, methane gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane (97%)[1] in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and helium are also usually present.[2] Methane is colorless and odorless, and the second largest greenhouse gas contributor to global climate change after carbon dioxide.[3] Because natural gas is odorless, odorizers such as mercaptan (which smells like sulfur or rotten eggs) are commonly added to it for safety so that leaks can be readily detected.[4]
Natural gas is a fossil fuel and non-renewable resource that is formed when layers of organic matter (primarily marine microorganisms)[5] decompose under anaerobic conditions and are subjected to intense heat and pressure underground over millions of years.[6] The energy that the decayed organisms originally obtained from the sun via photosynthesis is stored as chemical energy within the molecules of methane and other hydrocarbons.[7]
Natural gas can be burned for heating, cooking,
The extraction and consumption of natural gas is a major and growing contributor to
Natural gas can be found in underground
During petroleum production, natural gas is sometimes
Natural gas is sometimes informally referred to simply as "gas", especially when it is being compared to other energy sources, such as oil, coal or renewables. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, which is also shortened in colloquial usage to "gas", especially in North America.[17]
Natural gas is measured in
Name
In the early 1800s, natural gas became known as "natural" to distinguish it from the dominant gas fuel at the time, coal gas.[19] Unlike coal gas, which is manufactured by heating coal, natural gas can be extracted from the ground in its native gaseous form. When the use of natural gas overtook the use of coal gas in English speaking countries in the 20th century, it was increasingly referred to as simply "gas."[20] In order to highlight its role in exacerbating the climate crisis, however, many organizations have criticized the continued use of the word "natural" in referring to the gas. These advocates prefer the term "fossil gas" or "methane gas" as better conveying to the public its climate threat.[21][22][23] A 2020 study of Americans' perceptions of the fuel found that, across political identifications, the term "methane gas" led to better estimates of its harms and risks.[24]
History
Natural gas was not widely used before the development of long distance pipelines in the early twentieth century. Before that, most use was near to the source of the well, and the predominant gas for fuel and lighting during the industrial revolution was manufactured coal gas.[28]
The history of natural gas in the United States begins with localized use. In the seventeenth century, French missionaries witnessed the American Indians setting fire to natural gas seeps around lake Erie, and scattered observations of these seeps were made by European-descended settlers throughout the eastern seaboard through the 1700s.[29] In 1821, William Hart dug the first commercial natural gas well in the United States at Fredonia, New York, United States, which led in 1858 to the formation of the Fredonia Gas Light Company.[30] Further such ventures followed near wells in other states, until technological innovations allowed the growth of major long distance pipelines from the 1920s onward.[29]
By 2009, 66,000 km3 (16,000 cu mi) (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850,000 km3 (200,000 cu mi) of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas.[31]
Sources
Natural gas
In the 19th century, natural gas was primarily obtained as a by-product of
Until the early part of the 20th century, most natural gas associated with oil was either simply released or
In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in power generation, other end uses for natural gas include export as
Natural gas can be "associated" (found in
Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas (whether or not truly produced up the annulus and through a casinghead outlet) or associated gas. The
.There is some disagreement on which country has the largest proven gas reserves. Sources that consider that Russia has by far the largest proven reserves include the US
It is estimated that there are about 900,000 km3 of "unconventional" gas such as shale gas, of which 180,000 km3 may be recoverable.
The world's largest gas field is the offshore
Because natural gas is not a pure product, as the reservoir pressure drops when non-associated gas is extracted from a field under
Shale gas
Shale gas is natural gas produced from
Following the increased production in the United States, shale gas exploration is beginning in countries such as Poland, China, and South Africa.[48][49][50] Chinese geologists have identified the Sichuan Basin as a promising target for shale gas drilling, because of the similarity of shales to those that have proven productive in the United States. Production from the Wei-201 well is between 10,000 and 20,000 m3 per day.[51] In late 2020, China National Petroleum Corporation claimed daily production of 20 million cubic meters of gas from its Changning-Weiyuan demonstration zone.[52][unreliable source?]
Town gas
Most town "gashouses" located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by-product coke ovens that heated bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last half of the 20th century.) The coal tar (or asphalt) that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other waterproofing purposes, and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets.
Crystallized natural gas – clathrates
Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of clathrates under sediment on offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost, such as those in Siberia. Hydrates require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form.
In 2013, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) announced that they had recovered commercially relevant quantities of natural gas from methane hydrate.[53]
Processing
The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. It shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets.
The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane, and
Demand
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with US and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (October 2022) |
As of mid-2020, natural gas production in the US had peaked three times, with current levels exceeding both previous peaks. It reached 24.1 trillion cubic feet per year in 1973, followed by a decline, and reached 24.5 trillion cubic feet in 2001. After a brief drop, withdrawals increased nearly every year since 2006 (owing to the shale gas boom), with 2017 production at 33.4 trillion cubic feet and 2019 production at 40.7 trillion cubic feet. After the third peak in December 2019, extraction continued to fall from March onward due to decreased demand caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in the US.[58]
The
Storage and transport
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: change in transport from Russia.(May 2022) |
Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by vehicle. Natural gas
Whenever gas is bought or sold at custody transfer points, rules and agreements are made regarding the gas quality. These may include the maximum allowable concentration of CO
2, H
2S and H
2O. Usually sales quality gas that has been treated to remove contamination is traded on a "dry gas" basis and is required to be commercially free from objectionable odours, materials, and dust or other solid or liquid matter, waxes, gums and gum forming constituents, which might damage or adversely affect operation of equipment downstream of the custody transfer point.
LNG carrier ships transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) across oceans, while tank trucks can carry LNG or compressed natural gas (CNG) over shorter distances.[63] Sea transport using CNG carrier ships that are now under development may be competitive with LNG transport in specific conditions.[citation needed]
Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant, and is returned to gas form at regasification plant at the terminal. Shipborne regasification equipment is also used. LNG is the preferred form for long distance, high volume transportation of natural gas, whereas pipeline is preferred for transport for distances up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi) over land and approximately half that distance offshore.
In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering petroleum could not be profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field in a process known as flaring. Flaring is now illegal in many countries.[64] Additionally, higher demand in the last 20–30 years has made production of gas associated with oil economically viable. As a further option, the gas is now sometimes re-injected into the formation for enhanced oil recovery by pressure maintenance as well as miscible or immiscible flooding. Conservation, re-injection, or flaring of natural gas associated with oil is primarily dependent on proximity to markets (pipelines), and regulatory restrictions.
Natural gas can be indirectly exported through the absorption in other physical output. A recent study suggests that the expansion of shale gas production in the US has caused prices to drop relative to other countries. This has caused a boom in energy intensive manufacturing sector exports, whereby the average dollar unit of US manufacturing exports has almost tripled its energy content between 1996 and 2012.[65]
A "master gas system" was invented in Saudi Arabia in the late 1970s, ending any necessity for flaring. Satellite and nearby infra-red camera observations, however, shows that flaring[66][67][68][69] and venting[70] are still happening in some countries.
Natural gas is used to generate electricity and heat for desalination. Similarly, some landfills that also discharge methane gases have been set up to capture the methane and generate electricity.
Natural gas is often stored underground [references about geological storage needed]inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells,
With 15 countries accounting for 84% of the worldwide extraction, access to natural gas has become an important issue in international politics, and countries vie for control of pipelines.[71] In the first decade of the 21st century, Gazprom, the state-owned energy company in Russia, engaged in disputes with Ukraine and Belarus over the price of natural gas, which have created concerns that gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut off for political reasons.[72] The United States is preparing to export natural gas.[73]
Floating liquefied natural gas
Floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) is an innovative technology designed to enable the development of offshore gas resources that would otherwise remain untapped due to environmental or economic factors which currently make them impractical to develop via a land-based LNG operation. FLNG technology also provides a number of environmental and economic advantages:
- Environmental – Because all processing is done at the gas field, there is no requirement for long pipelines to shore, compression units to pump the gas to shore, dredging and jetty construction, and onshore construction of an LNG processing plant, which significantly reduces the environmental footprint.[74] Avoiding construction also helps preserve marine and coastal environments. In addition, environmental disturbance will be minimised during decommissioning because the facility can easily be disconnected and removed before being refurbished and re-deployed elsewhere.
- Economic – Where pumping gas to shore can be prohibitively expensive, FLNG makes development economically viable. As a result, it will open up new business opportunities for countries to develop offshore gas fields that would otherwise remain stranded, such as those offshore East Africa.[75]
Many gas and oil companies are considering the economic and environmental benefits of floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG). There are currently projects underway to construct five FLNG facilities.
Uses
Natural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere. North America and Europe are major consumers.
Often well head gases require removal of various hydrocarbon molecules contained within the gas. Some of these gases include heptane, pentane, propane and other hydrocarbons with molecular weights above methane (CH
4). The natural gas transmission lines extend to the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes the higher-molecular weight hydrocarbons to produce natural gas with energy content between 35–39 megajoules per cubic metre (950–1,050 British thermal units per cubic foot). The processed natural gas may then be used for residential, commercial and industrial uses.
Mid-stream natural gas
Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines is called mid-stream natural gas and is often used to power engines which rotate compressors. These compressors are required in the transmission line to pressurize and repressurize the mid-stream natural gas as the gas travels. Typically, natural gas powered engines require 35–39 MJ/m3 (950–1,050 BTU/cu ft) natural gas to operate at the rotational name plate specifications.[80] Several methods are used to remove these higher molecular weighted gases for use by the natural gas engine. A few technologies are as follows:
- Joule–Thomson skid
- Cryogenic or chillersystem
- enzymology system[80]
Power generation
Domestic use
In the US, over one-third of households (>40 million homes) cook with gas.
Domestic appliances, furnaces, and boilers use low pressure, usually with a standard preassure around 1.7 kilopascals (0.25 psi) over atmospheric preassure. The pressures in the supply lines vary, either the standard utilization pressure (UP) mentioned above or elevated pressure (EP), which may be anywhere from 7 to 800 kilopascals (1 to 120 psi) over atmospheric pressure. Systems using EP have a regulator at the service entrance to step down to UP.[85]
Natural gas piping systems inside buildings are often designed with pressures of 14 to 34 kilopascals (2 to 5 psi), and have downstream pressure regulators to reduce pressure as needed. In the United States the maximum allowable operating pressure for natural gas piping systems within a building is based on NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code,[86] except when approved by the Public Safety Authority or when insurance companies have more stringent requirements.
Generally, natural gas system pressures are not allowed to exceed 5 psi (34 kPa) unless all of the following conditions are met:
- The AHJ will allow a higher pressure.
- The distribution pipe is welded. (Note: 2. Some jurisdictions may also require that welded joints be radiographed to verify continuity).
- The pipes are closed for protection and placed in a ventilated area that does not allow gas accumulation.
- The pipe is installed in the areas used for industrial processes, research, storage or mechanical equipment rooms.
Generally, a maximum liquefied petroleum gas pressure of 20 psi (140 kPa) is allowed, provided the building is used specifically for industrial or research purposes and is constructed in accordance with NFPA 58: Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, Chapter 7.[87]
A seismic earthquake valve operating at a pressure of 55 psig (3.7 bar) can stop the flow of natural gas into the site wide natural gas distribution piping network (that runs (outdoors underground, above building roofs, and or within the upper supports of a canopy roof). Seismic earthquake valves are designed for use at a maximum of 60 psig.[88][89]
In Australia, natural gas is transported from gas processing facilities to regulator stations via transmission pipelines. Gas is then regulated down to distributed pressures and the gas is distributed around a gas network via gas mains. Small branches from the network, called services, connect individual domestic dwellings, or multi-dwelling buildings to the network. The networks typically range in pressures from 7 kPa (low pressure) to 515 kPa (high pressure). Gas is then regulated down to 1.1 kPa or 2.75 kPa, before being metered and passed to the consumer for domestic use.[90] Natural gas mains are made from a variety of materials: historically cast iron, though more modern mains are made from steel or polyethylene.
In some states in the USA natural gas can be supplied by independent natural gas wholesalers/suppliers using existing pipeline owners' infrastructure through Natural Gas Choice programs.
LPG (
Transportation
CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other
Besides use in road vehicles, CNG can also be used in aircraft.
LNG is also being used in aircraft. Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev for instance is running a development program to produce LNG- and hydrogen-powered aircraft.[97] The program has been running since the mid-1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu-204 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also the Tu-330 cargo aircraft. Depending on the current market price for jet fuel and LNG, fuel for an LNG-powered aircraft could cost 5,000 rubles (US$100) less per tonne, roughly 60%, with considerable reductions to carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.[citation needed]
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the standard kerosene mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency, in effect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively, it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.[citation needed]
Fertilizers
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for use in fertilizer production.[84][98] The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.[99][100]
Hydrogen
Natural gas can be used to produce
Animal and fish feed
Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria on commercial scale.[101][102][103]
Olefins(alkenes)
Natural gas components(alkanes) can be converted into
Other
Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, synthetic oil, and other products.[104]
Fuel for industrial heating and desiccation processes.
Raw material for large-scale fuel production using
Environmental effects
Greenhouse effect and natural gas release
Human activity is responsible for about 60% of all
After release to the atmosphere, methane is removed by gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals (OH−
) formed in the troposphere or stratosphere, giving the overall chemical reaction CH
4 + 2O
2 → CO
2 + 2H
2O.
Targeted efforts to reduce warming quickly by reducing anthropogenic methane emissions is a climate change mitigation strategy supported by the Global Methane Initiative.[110]
Greenhouse gas emissions
When refined and burned, natural gas can produce 25–30% less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than oil, and 40–45% less than coal.[115] It can also produce potentially fewer toxic pollutants than other hydrocarbon fuels.[115][116] However, compared to other major fossil fuels, natural gas causes more emissions in relative terms during the production and transportation of the fuel, meaning that the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are about 50% higher than the direct emissions from the site of consumption.[117][118]
In terms of the warming effect over 100 years, natural gas production and use comprises about one fifth of human greenhouse gas emissions, and this contribution is growing rapidly. Globally, natural gas use emitted about 7.8 billion tons of CO
2 in 2020 (including flaring), while coal and oil use emitted 14.4 and 12 billion tons, respectively.[119] The IEA estimates the energy sector (oil, natural gas, coal and bioenergy) to be responsible for about 40% of human methane emissions.[120] According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, natural gas consumption grew by 15% between 2015 and 2019, compared to a 5% increase in oil and oil product consumption.[121]
The continued financing and construction of new gas
Installation bans
To reduce its greenhouse emissions, the Netherlands is subsidizing a transition away from natural gas for all homes in the country by 2050. In Amsterdam, no new residential gas accounts have been allowed since 2018, and all homes in the city are expected to be converted by 2040 to use the excess heat from adjacent industrial buildings and operations.[125]
Some cities in the United States have started prohibiting gas hookups for new houses, with state laws passed and under consideration to either require electrification or prohibit local requirements.
The UK government is also experimenting with alternative home heating technologies to meet its climate goals.
Other pollutants
Although natural gas produces far lower amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx) than other fossil fuels,[116] NOx from burning natural gas in homes can be a health hazard.[132]
Radionuclides
Natural gas extraction also produces radioactive isotopes of
Safety concerns
The natural gas extraction workforce face unique health and safety challenges.[134][135]
Production
Some gas fields yield
Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the
Fracking
Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished by a process called
In hydraulic fracturing, well operators force water mixed with a variety of chemicals through the wellbore casing into the rock. The high pressure water breaks up or "fracks" the rock, which releases gas from the rock formation. Sand and other particles are added to the water as a
The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells varies according to the hydraulic fracturing technique. In the United States, the average volume of water used per hydraulic fracture has been reported as nearly 7,375 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells prior to 1953, nearly 197,000 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells between 2000 and 2010, and nearly 3 million gallons for horizontal gas wells between 2000 and 2010.[142]
Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for well productivity depends largely on the properties of the reservoir rock from which to extract oil or gas. If the rock is characterized by low-permeability – which refers to its ability to let substances, i.e. gas, pass through it, then the rock may be considered a source of
The US EPA has acknowledged that toxic, carcinogenic chemicals, i.e. benzene and ethylbenzene, have been used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures for high volume horizontal fracturing (HVHF).[151] Following the hydraulic fracture in HVHF, the water, chemicals, and frack fluid that return to the well's surface, called flowback or produced water, may contain radioactive materials, heavy metals, natural salts, and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in shale rock formations.[152] Fracking chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals, and salts that are removed from the HVHF well by well operators are so difficult to remove from the water they are mixed with, and would so heavily pollute the water cycle, that most of the flowback is either recycled into other fracking operations or injected into deep underground wells, eliminating the water that HVHF required from the hydrologic cycle.[153]
Historically low gas prices have delayed the nuclear renaissance, as well as the development of solar thermal energy.[154]
Added odor
In its native state, natural gas is colorless and almost
Risk of explosion
Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times each year. Individual homes, small businesses and other structures are most frequently affected when an internal leak builds up gas inside the structure. Leaks often result from excavation work, such as when contractors dig and strike pipelines, sometimes without knowing any damage resulted. Frequently, the blast is powerful enough to significantly damage a building but leave it standing. In these cases, the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries. Occasionally, the gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion, destroying one or more buildings in the process. Many building codes now forbid the installation of gas pipes inside cavity walls or below floor boards to mitigate against this risk. Gas usually dissipates readily outdoors, but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if flow rates are high enough.[156] However, considering the tens of millions of structures that use the fuel, the individual risk of using natural gas is low.
Risk of carbon monoxide inhalation
Natural gas heating systems may cause carbon monoxide poisoning if unvented or poorly vented. Improvements in natural gas furnace designs have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns. Detectors are also available that warn of carbon monoxide or explosive gases such as methane and propane.[157]
Energy content, statistics, and pricing
This section needs to be updated.(October 2022) |
Quantities of natural gas are measured in
Except in the European Union, the U.S., and Canada, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (
In August 2015, possibly the largest natural gas discovery in history was made and notified by an Italian gas company ENI. The energy company indicated that it has unearthed a
European Union
Gas prices for end users vary greatly across the
United States
In
In the United States, retail sales are often in units of
The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer. The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, depending on gas composition. Natural gas in the United States is traded as a futures contract on the New York Mercantile Exchange. Each contract is for 10,000 million BTU or 10 billion BTU (10,551 GJ). Thus, if the price of gas is $10/million BTU on the NYMEX, the contract is worth $100,000.
Canada
Canada uses
A
Adsorbed natural gas (ANG)
Natural gas may be stored by adsorbing it to the porous solids called sorbents. The optimal condition for methane storage is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Pressures up to 4 MPa (about 40 times atmospheric pressure) will yield greater storage capacity. The most common sorbent used for ANG is activated carbon (AC), primarily in three forms: Activated Carbon Fiber (ACF), Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), and activated carbon monolith.[167]
See also
- Associated petroleum gas
- Energy transition
- Gas/oil ratio
- Liquefied natural gas
- Natural gas by country
- Peak gas
- Power-to-gas
- Renewable natural gas
- Strategic natural gas reserve
- World energy supply and consumption
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Further reading
- Blanchard, Charles (2020). The Extraction State: A History of Natural Gas in America. U of Pittsburgh Press. online review.