Naval history of China

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  • Jin (266–420)
   
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 (960–1127)
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  • People's Republic
    of China
     (1949–present)
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     (Taiwan,
    1949–present)
Related articles

The naval history of China dates back thousands of years, with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn period regarding the Chinese navy and the various ship types employed in wars.[1] The Ming dynasty of China was the leading global maritime power between 1400 and 1433, when Chinese shipbuilders built massive ocean-going junks and the Chinese imperial court launched seven maritime voyages.[2] In modern times, the current People's Republic of China and the Republic of China governments continue to maintain standing navies through the People's Liberation Army Navy and the Republic of China Navy, respectively.

History

Early coastal maritime endeavours

Legend: "The great ships full of boys and girls sent in search of the immortal medicine (Hôraizan) by the Chinese Emperor Shih Huang Ti (Shikôtei), c. 219 BCE". A 19th century ukiyo-e by Kuniyoshi depicting the ships of the great sea expedition sent around 219 BC by the first Chinese Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, to find the legendary home of the immortals, the Mount Penglai, and retrieve the elixir of immortality.

The

Tower Ship Navy
.

Although naval battles took place before the 12th century, such as the large-scale

China's canal system and internal economy were sufficiently developed to nullify the need for the Pacific fleet, which was scuttled when conservative Confucianists gained power in the court and began a policy of introspection. After the First and Second Opium Wars, which shook up the generals of the Qing dynasty
, the government attached greater importance to the navy.

A Song dynasty junk ship, 13th century; Chinese ships of the Song period featured hulls with watertight compartments.

When the British

paddle-wheel boats among the Chinese fleet, which they took to be copies of a Western design. They also discovered a nearly-complete 30-gun man-of-war in Xiamen, along with new paddle-boats and brass guns under construction in Wusong and Shanghai.[4] Paddle-wheel boats were actually developed by the Chinese independently in the 5th–6th centuries, only a century after their first surviving mention in Roman sources (see Paddle steamer),[5] though that method of propulsion had been abandoned for many centuries and only recently reintroduced before the war. Numerous other innovations were present in Chinese vessels during the Middle Ages that had not yet been adopted by the Western and Islamic worlds, some of which were documented by Marco Polo but were not adopted by other navies until the 18th century, when the British successfully incorporated them into ship designs. For example, medieval Chinese hulls were split into bulkhead sections so that a hull rupture only flooded a fraction of the ship and did not necessarily sink it (see Ship floodability). This was described in the book of the Song dynasty maritime author Zhu Yu, the Pingzhou Table Talks of 1119 AD.[6] Along with the innovations described in Zhu's book, there were many other improvements to nautical technology in the medieval Song period. These included crossbeams bracing the ribs of ships to strengthen them, rudders that could be raised or lowered to allow ships to travel in a wider range of water depths, and the teeth of anchors arranged circularly instead of in one direction, "making them more reliable".[7] Junks
also had their sails staggered by wooden poles so that the crew could raise and lower them with ropes from the deck, like window blinds, without having to climb around and tie or untie various ropes every time the ship needed to turn or adjust speed.

A significant naval battle was the

Zhu Yuanzhang in founding the Ming dynasty
.

Ming expeditions and decline

See also: Ming treasure voyages

After the period of maritime activity during the

treasure voyages under the Yongle Emperor, the official policy towards naval expansion swayed between active restriction to ambivalence.[8]

Despite Ming ambivalence towards naval affairs, the

Chinese treasure fleet was still able to dominate other Asian navies, which enabled the Ming to send governors to rule in Luzon and Palembang as well as depose and enthrone puppet rulers in Sri Lanka and the Bataks.[9]

However, the Chinese fleet shrank tremendously after its military/tributary/exploratory functions in the early 15th century were deemed too expensive and it became primarily a police force on routes like the

Portuguese ships of the era by several times, were discontinued, and the junk
became the predominant Chinese vessel until the country's relatively recent (in terms of Chinese sailing history) naval revival

In 1521, at the

Battle of Xicaowan in 1522. In 1633, a Ming navy defeated a Dutch and Chinese pirate fleet during the Battle of Liaoluo Bay. A large number of military treatises, including extensive discussions of naval warfare, were written during the Ming period, including the Wubei Zhi and Jixiao Xinshu.[10] Additionally, shipwrecks have been excavated in the South China Sea, including wrecks of Chinese trade and war ships that sank around 1377 and 1645.[11]

The continuing "sea ban" policy during the early Qing dynasty meant that the development of naval power stagnated. River and coastal naval defence was the responsibility of the waterborne units of the Green Standard Army, which were based at Jingkou (now Zhenjiang) and Hangzhou.

In 1661, a naval unit was established at

ironclads
.

In the 1860s, an attempt to establish a modern navy via the British-built Osborn or "Vampire" Fleet to combat the Taiping rebels' US-built gunboats. The so-called "Vampire Fleet" fitted out by the Chinese government for the suppression of piracy on the coast of China, owing to the non-fulfilment of the condition that British commander Sherard Osborn should receive orders from the imperial government only, was scrapped.[12]

Imperial Chinese Navy

Main article: Imperial Chinese Navy
Chinese sailors from the Hai Chi, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.

There were four fleets of the Imperial Chinese Navy:

In 1865, the Jiangnan Shipyard was established.

In 1874, a Japanese incursion into Taiwan exposed the vulnerability of China at sea. A proposal was made to establish three modern coastal fleets: the Northern Sea or Beiyang Fleet, to defend the Yellow Sea, the Southern Sea or Nanyang Fleet, to defend the East China Sea, and the Canton Sea or Yueyang Fleet, to defend the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea. The Beiyang Fleet, with a remit to defend the section of coastline closest to the capital Beijing, was prioritised.

A series of warships were ordered from Britain and Germany in the late 1870s, and naval bases were built at

Weihaiwei. The first British-built ships were delivered in 1881, and the Beiyang Fleet was formally established in 1888. Many children of Chinese military families were sent abroad to study in the United States in order to modernize the Imperial Chinese Navy, although they were denied admission to the military academies of West Point and Annapolis and had to switch to other countries after the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act.[4] In 1894 the Beiyang Fleet was on paper the strongest navy in Asia at the time. However, it was largely lost during the First Sino-Japanese War after the Battle of the Yalu River. This battle allowed the Imperial Japanese Army to invade China, occupy the Shandong Peninsula, and use the fortress at Weihaiwei to shell the Chinese fleet.[4][14] Although the modern battleships Zhenyuan and Dingyuan were impervious to Japanese fire, they were unable to sink a single ship and all eight cruisers were lost.[14] The battle displayed once again that the modernisation efforts of China were far inferior to the Meiji Restoration
.

The Nanyang Fleet was also established in 1875, and grew with mostly domestically built warships and a small number of acquisitions from Britain and Germany. It fought in the Sino-French War, performing somewhat poorly against the French in all engagements and resulting in allowing the French colonization of Southeast Asia. The defeat of the Nanyang Fleet also emboldened the British to complete their annexation of Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War.[citation needed]

The separate

Whampoa, in Canton (now Guangzhou
). Ships from the Guangdong Fleet toured the South China Sea in 1909 as a demonstration of Chinese control over the sea.

After the First Sino-Japanese War, Zhang Zhidong established a river-based fleet in Hubei.

In 1909, the remnants of the Beiyang, Nanyang, Guangdong and Fujian Fleets, together with the Hubei fleet, were merged, and re-organised as the Sea Fleet and the River Fleet.

Sa Zhenbing

In 1911, Sa Zhenbing became the Minister of Navy of the Great Qing.

One of the new ships delivered after the war with Japan, the cruiser Hai Chi, in 1911 became the first vessel flying the Yellow Dragon Flag to arrive in American waters, visiting New York City as part of a tour.[15][16][17][18]

Modern

Main articles: People's Liberation Army Navy and Republic of China Navy
ROCN delegation in Washington D.C., 1930.

The

Republic of China, which was established after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. Liu Guanxiong, a former Qing dynasty admiral, became the first Minister of Navy of the Republic of China. During the Warlord Era that scarred China in the 1920s and 1930s the ROCN remained loyal to the Kuomintang government of Sun Yat-sen instead of the Beiyang government in Beijing which fell to the Nationalist government in the 1928 Northern Expedition and between the civil war with the Communist Party and 1937 Japanese invasion of Northeast China. During that time and throughout World War II, the ROCN concentrated mainly on riverine warfare as the poorly equipped ROCN was not a match to Imperial Japanese Navy over ocean or coast.[19] The ROCN is currently the naval forces on the island of Taiwan
.

PLAN sailors at the Qingdao, North Sea Fleet headquarters parading with Type-56 carbines in 2000 for a visiting U.S. Navy delegation.

The

People's Republic of China. The PLAN can trace its lineage to naval units fighting during the Chinese Civil War and was established in September 1950. The PLAN was initially dedicated to coastal defense, defending against commando raids on the Fujian coast from Taiwan. It also played a role in the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crises.[4]

Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, the

riverine and littoral force (brown-water navy). However, by the 1990s, following the fall of the Soviet Union and a shift towards a more forward-oriented foreign and security policy, the leaders of the Chinese military were freed from worrying over land border disputes, and instead turned their attention towards the seas. This led to the development of the People's Liberation Army Navy into a green-water navy by 2009.[21] Before the 1990s the PLAN had traditionally played a subordinate role to the People's Liberation Army Ground Force
.

In 2020 the PLAN surpassed the U.S. Navy as the largest navy in the world in numbers of ships, although the U.S. Navy continued to have technological advantages. This development occurred amid increasing tensions between China and the United States and as China was becoming involved in territorial disputes in the South China Sea.[22]

Literature

Early literature

A Chinese Song dynasty naval river ship with a Xuanfeng traction-trebuchet catapult on its top deck, taken from an illustration of the Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD).

One of the oldest known Chinese books written on naval matters was the Yuejueshu (Lost Records of the State of Yue) of 52 AD, attributed to the Han dynasty scholar Yuan Kang.[1] Many passages of Yuan Kang's book were rewritten and published in Li Fang's Imperial Reader of the Taiping Era, compiled in AD 983.[23] The preserved written passages of Yuan Kang's book were again featured in the Yuanjian Leihan (Mirror of the Infinite, a Classified Treasure Chest) encyclopedia, edited and compiled by Zhang Ying in 1701 during the Qing dynasty.[1]

Yuan Kang's book listed various water crafts that were used for war, including one that was used primarily for

King Helü of Wu (r. 514 BC–496 BC) and Wu Zixu (526 BC–484 BC). The Wu Kingdom's
Navy is regarded as the origin of the first Chinese Navy which consisted of different ships for specific purposes. Wu Zixu stated:

Nowadays in training naval forces we use the tactics of land forces for the best effect. Thus great wing ships correspond to the army's heavy chariots, little wing ships to light chariots, stomach strikers to battering rams, castle ships to mobile assault towers, and bridge ships to light cavalry.[1]

Ramming vessels were also attested to in other Chinese documents, including the Shi Ming dictionary of c. 100 AD written by Liu Xi.[25] The Chinese also used a large iron t-shaped hook connected to a spar to pin retreating ships down, as described in the Mozi book compiled in the 4th century BC.[26] This was discussed in a dialogue between Mozi and Lu Ban in 445 BC (when Lu traveled to the State of Chu from the State of Lu), as the hook-and-spar technique made standard on all Chu warships was given as the reason why the Yue navy lost in battle to Chu.[27]

The rebellion of

across the Yangtze with fortified posts on it, protected further by a boom, as well as erecting forts on the river bank to provide further missile fire at another angle.[25] Cen Peng was unable to break through this barrier and barrage of missile fire, until he equipped his navy with castle ships, rowed assault vessels, and 'colliding swoopers' used for ramming in a fleet of several thousand vessels and quelled Gongsun's rebellion.[25]

A Chinese paddle-wheel driven ship from a Qing dynasty encyclopedia published in 1726.

The 'castle ship' design described by Yuan Kang saw continued use in Chinese naval battles after the Han period. Confronting the navy of the Chen dynasty on the Yangtze River, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604) employed an enormous naval force of thousands of ships and 518,000 soldiers stationed along the Yangtze (from Sichuan to the Pacific Ocean).[29] The largest of these ships had five layered decks, could hold 800 passengers, and each ship was fitted with six 50 ft. long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, along with the ability of pinning them down.[29]

Vessels of the Tang dynasty

During the Chinese

Jin–Song wars.[31]

Covered swoopers

starboard, there are openings for crossbows and holes for spears. Enemy parties cannot board (these ships), nor can arrows or stones injure them. This arrangement is not adopted for large vessels because higher speed and mobility are preferable, in order to be able to swoop suddenly on the unprepared enemy. Thus these (covered swoopers) are not fighting ships (in the ordinary sense).[32]

Combat junks

Combat junks (Zhan xian); combat junks have ramparts and half-ramparts above the side of the hull, with the oar-ports below. Five feet from the edge of the deck (to port and starboard) there is set a deckhouse with ramparts, having ramparts above it as well. This doubles the space available for fighting. There is no cover or roof over the top (of the ship). Serrated pennants are flown from staffs fixed at many places on board, and there are gongs and drums; thus these (combat junks) are (real) fighting ships (in the ordinary sense).[32]

Flying barques

Flying barques (Zou ge); another kind of fighting ship. They have a double row of ramparts on the deck, and they carry more sailors (lit. rowers) and fewer soldiers, but the latter are selected from the best and bravest. These ships rush back and forth (over the waves) as if flying, and can attack an enemy unawares. They are most useful for emergencies and urgent duty.[32]

Patrol boats

Patrol boats (Yu ting) are small vessels used for collecting intelligence. They have no ramparts above the hull, but to port and starboard there is one rowlock every four feet, varying in total number according to the size of the boat. Whether going forward, stopping, or returning, or making evolutions in formation, the speed (of these boats) is like flying. But they are for reconnaissance, they are not fighting boats/ships.[32]

Sea hawks

Sea hawks (Hai hu); these ships have low

overturn. Covering over and protecting the upper parts on both sides of the ship are stretched raw ox-hides, as if on a city wall [a footnote: protection against incendiary projectiles]. There are serrated pennants, and gongs and drums, just as on the fighting ships.[33]

Ships from the Wujing Zongyao

Naval endeavours by era

Fort Zeelandia in the 19th century, Qing dynasty

Spring and Autumn period

  • Wars between Wu and Qi

Warring States

Qin dynasty

Han dynasty

Main article: Military of the Han dynasty § Navy

Three Kingdoms

Sui dynasty

  • Goguryeo-Sui Wars

Tang dynasty

Song dynasty

Yuan dynasty

Main article: Military of the Yuan dynasty § Navy

Ming dynasty

Main article: Military of the Ming dynasty § Navy
A modern wax statue of Admiral Zheng He, who led seven expeditions in the Western Ocean

Qing dynasty

Main article: Military of the Qing dynasty § Navy

The Qing established a sea defence force of 7 fleets across 4 sea zones. Due to rebellions in the late 18th century the navy was neglected and declined, ultimately suffering defeat in the opium wars.

The modern

torpedoes, and other modern weapons were acquired by the Qing dynasty from western powers. They were manned by western trained Chinese officers.[34]

Republic of China

People's Republic of China

Chinese naval warfare gallery

  • A restored copy of the illustration of Zheng He's visits to the West on the flyleaf of the book "Heavenly Princess Classics" in 1420. This invaluable picture is the earliest pictorial record of Zheng He treasure-ships.
    A restored copy of the illustration of Zheng He's visits to the West on the flyleaf of the book "Heavenly Princess Classics" in 1420. This invaluable picture is the earliest pictorial record of Zheng He treasure-ships.
  • Sketch of Cheng Ho's ship
    Sketch of Cheng Ho's ship
  • Ships of the world as depicted in the Fra Mauro map, 1460.
    Ships of the world as depicted in the Fra Mauro map, 1460.
  • Ming dynasty war junk from Zheng Ruozeng's Chouhai tubian (1562)
    Ming dynasty war junk from Zheng Ruozeng's Chouhai tubian (1562)
  • River ships in Taiping Shanshui tu by Xiao Yuncong (1596-1673)
    River ships in Taiping Shanshui tu by Xiao Yuncong (1596-1673)
  • A two-masted Chinese junk, from the Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing, published in 1637
    A two-masted Chinese junk, from the Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing, published in 1637
  • A Ming junk, 1637.
    A Ming junk, 1637.
  • Early 17th-century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships
    Early 17th-century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships
  • A Chinese junk in Japan, at the beginning of the Sakoku period (1644–1648 Japanese woodblock print)
    A Chinese junk in Japan, at the beginning of the Sakoku period (1644–1648 Japanese woodblock print)
  • Ming-Qing ship (Feng Zhou) from the Liuqiu guozhi lüe (The History of the Ryukyu Kingdom), 1759.
    Ming-Qing ship (Feng Zhou) from the Liuqiu guozhi lüe (The History of the Ryukyu Kingdom), 1759.
  • Barge, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Barge,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Covered swooper, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Covered swooper,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Walking barge, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Walking barge,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Fighting ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Fighting ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Sea falcon ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Sea falcon ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Guangdong ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Guangdong ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Xinhui sharp tail ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Xinhui sharp tail ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Dongguan great head ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Dongguan great head ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Great fortune ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Great fortune ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Grass ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Grass ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Haicang ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Haicang ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Wave breaking ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Wave breaking ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • High branch ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    High branch ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Sound ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Sound ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Leather bridge ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Leather bridge ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Cangshan ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Cangshan ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Eight oar ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Eight oar ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Falcon ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Falcon ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Fishing ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Fishing ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Netting ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Netting ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Two headed ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Two headed ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Sand ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Sand ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Centipede ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Beak ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Beak ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Son and mother boat, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Son and mother boat,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Wheel barge, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Wheel barge,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Red dragon boat, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Red dragon boat,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Fire ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Fire ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Bomb laying boat, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Bomb laying boat,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Tower ship, Gujin Tushu Jicheng
    Tower ship,
    Gujin Tushu Jicheng
  • Junk Keying travelled from China to the United States and England between 1846 and 1848.
    Junk Keying travelled from China to the United States and England between 1846 and 1848.
  • Chinese ship, 1853.
    Chinese ship, 1853.
  • Either the Chinese frigate Haian or Yuyuen, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    Either the Chinese frigate
    Haian or Yuyuen, of the Imperial Chinese Navy
    .
  • Chinese gunboat Cedian, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    Chinese gunboat Cedian, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese ironclad Zhenyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese ironclad Zhenyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese ironclad Dingyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese ironclad Dingyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Zhiyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Zhiyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Hai Chi, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Hai Chi, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Hai Tien, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Hai Tien, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Jingyuan (靖遠), of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Jingyuan (靖遠), of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Jingyuan (經遠), of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Jingyuan (經遠), of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Laiyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Laiyuan, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Chaoyong, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Chaoyong, of the Imperial Chinese Navy.
  • The Chinese coastal defence ship Zhongshan, of the Republic of China Navy.
    The Chinese coastal defence ship
    Zhongshan, of the Republic of China Navy
    .
  • The Chinese cruiser Chao Ho, of the Republic of China Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Chao Ho, of the Republic of China Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Ying Rui, of the Republic of China Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Ying Rui, of the Republic of China Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Ning Hai, of the Republic of China Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Ning Hai, of the Republic of China Navy.
  • The Chinese cruiser Ping Hai, of the Republic of China Navy.
    The Chinese cruiser Ping Hai, of the Republic of China Navy.
  • A modern replica of the Chinese ironclad Dingyuan, as a museum ship.
    A modern replica of the Chinese ironclad Dingyuan, as a museum ship.
  • Restored Chinese coastal defence ship Zhongshan, as a museum ship in the Zhongshan Warship Museum.
    Restored Chinese coastal defence ship Zhongshan, as a museum ship in the Zhongshan Warship Museum.

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 678.
  2. ^ China in History — From 200 to 2005 Archived 2009-12-12 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 476.
  4. ^
    OCLC 24536360.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Entry at WorldCat
  5. ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 31.
  6. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 463.
  7. ^ Graff, 86.
  8. ^ Sim 2017, p. 236.
  9. ISBN 978-9971-69-505-7
    .
  10. ^ Papelitzky 2017, p. 130.
  11. ^ Papelitzky 2017, p. 132.
  12. ^ Clowes, Sir William Laird (1903). "SHERARD OSBORN'S CHINESE FLEET". The Royal Navy: A History from the Earliest Times to the Death of Queen Victoria. Vol. 7. London: Sampson Low, Marston and Company. pp. 171–172.
  13. ISBN 9789004327214
    .
  14. ^
    ISBN 9780870211928
    .
  15. Time magazine. July 17, 1933. Archived from the original on November 22, 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-18. The cruiser Hai Chi ("Flag of the Sea") earned in 1911 the distinction of being the first Chinese war boat ever to visit the West when she steamed as near as possible to the Coronation of King George V, discharged a cargo of Chinese emissaries in gorgeous silken robes. Built in 1897 the Hai Chi and the equally venerable Hai Shen
    ("Pearl of the Sea") were still listed last week as the only cruisers in China's Northeastern Squadron.
  16. New York Times
    . September 11, 1911. Retrieved 2010-12-18. Who cruiser Hai-Chi of the Imperial Navy of China, the first vessel of any kind flying the yellow dragon flag of China that has ever been in American waters, steamed into the Hudson yesterday morning and anchored in midstream opposite the Soldiers and Sailors' Monument, at Eighty-ninth Street.
  17. Christian Science Monitor
    . September 12, 1911. Retrieved 2010-12-18. Officers and men of the Chinese cruiser Hai-Chi, which arrived at this port Monday, are to be given ample opportunity to see New York during their stay of 10 days here. ...
  18. ^ New York Tribune September 12,1911
  19. ^ "歷史傳承 (History)". ROC Navy. Retrieved 2006-03-08. [dead link]
  20. ^ Pike, John. "People's Liberation Army Navy – History". Retrieved 25 December 2014.
  21. ^ The View from the West: Chinese Naval Power in the 21st Century, by Christian Bedford
  22. ^ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "China has the world's largest navy — what now for the US? | DW | 21.10.2020". DW.COM. Retrieved 2021-10-06.
  23. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 678, F.
  24. ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 679.
  25. ^ a b c Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 680.
  26. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 681.
  27. ^ Needham, Volume 3, Part 4, 681-682.
  28. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 679-680.
  29. ^ a b Ebrey, 89.
  30. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 685-687.
  31. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 421–422.
  32. ^ a b c d Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 686.
  33. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 686-687.
  34. ISBN 1-86176-144-9
    . Retrieved February 19, 2011.

Sources

External links

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