Neferefre
Neferefre | |
---|---|
Raneferef, Neferefra, Noufirre, Noufirefre, Cherês | |
Pharaoh | |
Reign | Probably two years or less[2] in the early to mid 25th century BC [note 1] |
Predecessor | Neferirkare Kakai (most likely) or Shepseskare |
Successor | Shepseskare (most likely) or Nyuserre Ini |
Consort | likely Fifth Dynasty |
Neferefre Isi (fl. 25th century BC; also known as Raneferef, Ranefer and in
Neferefre started
Little is known of Neferefre's activities beyond laying the foundations of his pyramid and attempting to finish that of his father. A single text shows that Neferefre had planned or just started to build a sun temple called Hotep-Re, meaning "Ra is content" or "Ra's offering table", which possibly never functioned as such given the brevity of the king's reign. After his death, Neferefre might have been succeeded by an ephemeral and little-known pharaoh, Shepseskare, whose relation with Neferefre remains highly uncertain and debated.
Sources
Contemporaneous
There are very few archaeological sources contemporaneous with Neferefre, a fact which is now seen by Egyptologists, including
Some of the Abusir Papyri discovered in Khentkhaus II's temple and dating to the mid- to late Fifth Dynasty mention the mortuary temple and funerary cult of Neferefre. They constitute a written source near-contemporaneous with his reign, which not only confirmed the existence of Neferefre's pyramid complex at a time when it had not yet been identified,[29] but also gives details regarding the administrative organisation and importance of the funerary cult of the king in Ancient Egyptian society.[30]
Historical
Neferefre is present on several Ancient Egyptian king lists, all dating to the
Neferefre was also likely mentioned in the
Family
Parents and siblings
Neferefre was, in all likelihood, the eldest son of his predecessor pharaoh Neferirkare Kakai with queen Khentkaus II.[3][5][35] This is shown by a relief on a limestone slab discovered in a house in the village near Abusir[36] and depicting Neferirkare and his wife Khentkaus with "the king's eldest son Ranefer",[note 5][37] a name identical with some variants of Neferefre's own.[38] This indicates that Ranefer was Neferefre's name when he was still only a crown prince, that is, before his accession to the throne.[39]
Neferirkare and Khentkaus had at least another son, the future king Nyuserre Ini. In addition, since the relation between Shepseskare and Neferefre remains uncertain, it is possible that the two were brothers too, as suggested by the Egyptologist Silke Roth,[40] although other hypotheses on the matter have been proposed: Verner sees Shepseskare as a son of Sahure and hence Neferefre's uncle, while Jaromír Krejčí believes Shepseskare was Neferefre's son.[41] Finally, yet another brother,[42] possibly younger[43] than both Neferefre and Nyuserre has also been proposed: Iryenre, a prince iry-pat[note 6] whose filiation is suggested by the fact that his funerary cult was associated with that of his mother, both having taken place in the temple of Khentkaus II.[45][46]
Consort and children
Until 2014, no consort of Neferefre was known.
In addition, Khentkaus III was also called "king's mother" by inscriptions in her tomb, indicating that her son had become pharaoh. Since Neferefre's second successor Nyuserre Ini is known to have been his brother rather than his son, and since Khentkaus III might have been buried during Nyuserre's reign, as indicated by mud seals,[48] this only leaves either Neferefre's ephemeral successor Shepseskare or Nyuserre's successor Menkauhor Kaiu as possibilities.[48] There is an ongoing debate in Egyptology concerning these two alternatives. Verner posits that Shepseskare was an uncle of Neferefre and therefore that Menkauhor Kaiu was Neferefre's son. Meanwhile, Krejčí views the opposite hypothesis, that Shepseskare was Neferefre's son with Khentkaus III, as more probable.[41]
Two further sons of Neferefre and Khentkaus III have been proposed by Verner: the "king's son" Nakhtsare,[54] whose filiation is supported by the general date and location of his tomb,[41] and Kakaibaef, a member of the elite buried in Abusir.[54] Krejčí notes the lack of the titular "king's son" in relation to Kakaibaef, thereby emphasizing the conjectural nature of Verner's assertion.[41]
Reign
Accession to the throne
Two competing hypotheses exist in Egyptology to describe the succession of events running from the death of Neferirkare Kakai, third king of the Fifth Dynasty, to the coronation of Nyuserre Ini, sixth ruler of the dynasty. Relying on historical sources, most notably the Saqqara king list and Manetho's Aegyptiaca, where Neferefre is said to have succeeded Shepseskare,[34] many Egyptologists such as Jürgen von Beckerath and Hartwig Altenmüller have traditionally believed[55] that the following royal succession took place: Neferirkare Kakai → Shepseskare → Neferefre Isi → Nyuserre Ini.[5][56] In this scenario, Neferefre would be the father of Nyuserre, who would have become pharaoh after the former's unexpected death.[5][57]
This view was challenged at the turn of the millennium, most notably by Verner,[58][59][60] who has been responsible for the archaeological excavations of the Fifth Dynasty royal necropolis of Abusir since 1976. Firstly, there is the relief, mentioned earlier, showing that Neferefre was in all likelihood Neferirkare's eldest son.[39][61]
Secondly, excavations of Neferefre's pyramid have yielded his mummy, which showed that he was 18 to 20 years of age at the death of Neferirkare.[62] Consequently, as the previous king's eldest son, in his late teens to early twenties, Neferefre was in optimal position to ascend the throne. Positing that Shepseskare reigned between Neferefre and his father would thus require an explanation as to why and how Shepseskare's claim to the throne could have been stronger than Neferefre's.[63]
Thirdly, archaeological evidences indicate that Shepseskare most likely reigned for only a few weeks to a few months at the most rather than seven years as credited to him in the Aegyptiaca,[13][55] a hypothesis already supported by Nicolas Grimal as early as 1988.[67] Indeed, Shepseskare is the least known Fifth Dynasty king, with only two seals[68][69] and a few seal impressions bearing his name known as of 2017,[70][71][72][73] a paucity of attestations suggesting a very short reign. This is also supported by the state of Shepseskare's unfinished pyramid, which "was interrupted [and] corresponds to the work of several weeks, perhaps no more than one or two months".[74]
Fourthly, archaeological evidence also favors dating Shepseskare's reign to after Neferefre's.
Reign duration
While Neferefre is given a reign of some 20 years in epitomes of Manetho's Aegyptiaca,[34] the current academic view is that this number is an overestimation of his true reign length, which must have been significantly shorter. Before the results of the extensive excavations in Abusir were fully published, Egyptologists following the traditional succession hypothesis credited Neferefre with around a decade of rule, based on the paucity of attestations contemporaneous with his reign. For example, von Beckerath and Winfried Barta gave him 11 and 10 years on the throne, respectively.[82][83] This view now has few supporters.[33]
Indeed, since then, Verner has set forth the hypothesis of a reign of no more than two years.[23] His conclusion is based on archaeological evidence: the unfinished state of his intended pyramid, and the general paucity of documents datable to his rule. Verner writes that:
The shape of the tomb of Neferefra...as well as a number of other archaeological finds clearly indicate that the construction of the king's funerary monument was interrupted, owing to the unexpected early death of the king. The plan of the unfinished building had to be basically changed and a decision was taken to hastily convert the unfinished pyramid, (of which only the incomplete lowest step of the core was built), into a "square-shaped mastaba" or, more precisely, a stylized primeval hill. At the moment of the king's death neither the burial apartment was built, nor was the foundation of the mortuary temple laid.[23]
Furthermore, two historical sources conform with the hypothesis of a short reign: the mason's inscription in Neferefre's pyramid was discovered "at about two thirds of the height of the extant core of the monument"[23] and probably refers to Neferefre's first or second year on the throne; and the Turin canon which credits Neferefre with less than two full years of reign.[23] The combination of archaeological and historical evidence led to the consensus that Neferefre's reign lasted "not longer than about two years".[23]
Building activities
Pyramid complex
Pyramid
Neferefre started the construction of a pyramid for himself in the royal necropolis of Abusir, where his father and grandfather had built their own pyramids. It was known to the Ancient Egyptians as Netjeribau Raneferef meaning "The
Planned with a square base of 108 m (354 ft), the pyramid of Neferefre was to be larger than those of Userkaf and Sahure, but smaller than that of his father Neferirkare.
The monument was used as a stone quarry from the New Kingdom period onwards,[90] but was later preserved from further damages as its appearance of a rough unfinished and abandoned pyramid did not attract the attention of tomb robbers.[88]
Mortuary temple
Works on the mortuary temple in which the funerary cult of the deceased king was to take place had not even started when Neferefe died. In the short 70-day period allowed between a king's death and his burial,[91] Neferefre's successor—possibly the ephemeral Shepseskare[55]—built a small limestone chapel. It was located on the pyramid base platform, in the 5 m (16 ft) gap left between the masonry and the platform edge, where the pyramid casing would have been put in the original plans.[91] This small chapel was completed during Nyuserre's reign.[92] This pharaoh also built a larger mortuary temple for his brother Neferefre, extending over the whole 65 m (213 ft) length of the pyramid side but built of cheaper mudbrick.[93]
The temple entrance comprised a courtyard adorned with two stone and 24 wooden columns.
A significant cache of administrative papyri, comparable in size to the Abusir Papyri found in the temples of Neferirkare and Khentkaus II,
Mummy of Neferefre
Fragments of mummy wrappings and cartonnage, as well as scattered pieces of human remains, were discovered on the east side of the burial chamber of the pyramid.[100] The remains amounted to a left hand, a left clavicle still covered with skin, fragments of skin probably from the forehead, upper eyelid and the left foot and a few bones.[101] These remains were in the same archaeological layer as broken pieces from a red granite sarcophagus[100] as well as what remained of the funerary equipment of the king,[note 11] hinting that they could indeed belong to Neferefre.[15] This was further corroborated by subsequent studies of the embalming techniques used on the mummy, found to be compatible with an Old Kingdom date.[15]
The body of the king was probably dried by means of natron and then covered with a thin layer of resin, before being given a white calcareous coating. There is no evidence of brain removal as expected from post-Old Kingdom mummification techniques.[15] A final confirmation of the identity of the mummy is provided by radiocarbon dating, which yielded a 2628–2393 BC interval for the human remains in close correspondence with estimated dates for the Fifth Dynasty.[102] Thus, Neferefre is, with Djedkare Isesi, one of the very few Old Kingdom pharaohs whose mummy has been identified.[62] A bioarchaeological analysis of Neferefre's remains revealed that the king did not partake in strenuous work,[15] died in his early twenties at between 20 and 23 years old and that he may have stood 1.67 to 1.69 m (5 ft 6 in to 5 ft 7 in) in height.[103] The remains of a second individual were discovered in the burial chamber, but those proved to belong to an individual from the Late Middle Ages, who likely lived during the 14th century AD. He had simply been laid on rags and covered with sand for his burial.[15]
Sun temple
Following a tradition established by Userkaf, founder of the Fifth Dynasty, Neferefre planned or built a temple to the sun god Ra. Called Hotep-Re[note 12] by the Ancient Egyptians, meaning "Ra is content"[5] or "Ra's offering table",[104] the temple has not yet been located but is presumably in the vicinity of Neferefre's pyramid in Abusir.[5] It is known solely[105][106] from inscriptions discovered in the mastaba of Ti in North Saqqara,[107][108] where it is mentioned four times.[105] Ti served as an administration official in the pyramid and sun temples of Sahure, Neferirkare and Nyuserre.[108][109]
Given Neferefre's very short reign, the lack of attestations of the Hotep-Re beyond the mastaba of Ti, as well as the lack of priests having served in the temple, Verner proposes that the temple might never have been completed and therefore never functioned as such. Rather it might have been integrated to or its materials reused for the Shesepibre, the sun temple built by Neferefre's probable younger brother, Nyuserre.[110] Incidentally, an earlier discovery by the German archaeological expedition of 1905 under the direction of Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing may vindicate Verner's theory. This expedition uncovered the ruins of large buildings of mudbricks beneath the sun temple of Nyuserre in Abu Gorab.[111] It is possible that these represent the remains of the sun temple of Neferefre, although in the absence of inscriptions confirming this identification, it remains conjectural.[106]
Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai
When he ascended the throne, Neferefre faced the task of completing the pyramid of his father which, with a square base side of 105 m (344 ft) and a height of 72 m (236 ft), is the largest built during the Fifth Dynasty.[112] Although well underway at the death of Neferirkare, the pyramid was lacking its external limestone cladding and the accompanying mortuary temple still had to be built. Neferefre thus started to cover the pyramid surface with limestone and build the foundation of a stone temple on the pyramid's eastern side. His plans were cut short by his death and the duty of finishing the monument fell on Nyuserre's shoulders, who abandoned the task of covering the pyramid face and instead concentrated on building the mortuary temple in bricks and wood.[113]
Funerary cult
Like other pharaohs of the Old Kingdom period, Neferefre benefited from a funerary cult established at his death. Some details of this cult as it occurred during the Fifth Dynasty have survived in the Abusir Papyri. A 10-day yearly festival was held in honor of the deceased ruler during which, on at least one occasion, no less than 130 bulls were sacrificed in the slaughter house of his mortuary temple.[30] The act of mass animal sacrifice testifies to the importance that royal funerary cults had in Ancient Egyptian society, and also shows that vast agricultural resources were devoted to an activity judged unproductive by Verner, something they propose possibly contributed to the decline of the Old Kingdom.[30] The main beneficiaries of these sacrifices were the cult's priests, who consumed the offerings after the required ceremonies.[30]
The funerary cult of Neferefre seems to have ceased at the end of the Old Kingdom or during the
Notes, references and sources
Notes
- ^ Proposed dates for Neferefre's reign: 2475–2474 BC,[3][4][5][6] 2460–2455 BC,[7] 2460–2453 BC,[8] 2448–2445 BC,[9][10] 2456–2445 BC,[11] 2431–2420 BC,[12] 2404 BC,[13] 2399 BC.[14] Finally, the radiocarbon dating of a skin fragment from the mummy of Neferefre has yielded the dates 2628–2393 BC.[15]
- ^ Uncertain translation, might be a diminutive.[16][20]
- ^ The inscription reads rnpt sp tpy, 3bd 4 3ḫt.[23]
- ^ For example, the mastaba of princess Hedjetnebu, a daughter of Djedkare Isesi, yielded clay seals of Neferefre.[27]
- ^ The transliteration of the inscription is [s3-nswt] smsw Rˁ-nfr.[35]
- ^ That is Jrj-pˁt. Often translated as "hereditary prince" or "hereditary noble" and more precisely "concerned with the nobility", this title denotes a highly exalted position.[44]
- ^ Miroslav Bárta, the head of the team of archeologists who made the discovery states that "The unearthed tomb is a part of a small cemetery to the south east of the pyramid complex of King Neferefre which led the team to think that Queen Khentkaus could be the wife of Neferefre hence she was buried close to his funerary complex".[52][53]
- ^ Heliopolis housed the main temple of Ra, which was the most important religious center in the country at the time.[66] The temple was visible from both Abusir and Giza[63] and was probably located where the lines from the Abusir and Giza necropolises intersected.[66]
- ^ Ancient Egyptian transliteration of the name of the pyramid, Nṯr.j-b3w-Rˁ-nfr f.
- ^ The original Ancient Egyptian term iat, used to describe the monument in the Abusir papyri, has also been translated by "hill".[86][89]
- ^ That is fragments from four alabaster canopic jars and pieces from three calcite cases.[100]
- ^ Transcription from the Ancient Egyptian Ḥtp-Rˁ.
References
- ^ Verner 1985b, pp. 272–273, pl. XLV–XLVIII.
- ^ Hornung 2012, p. 484.
- ^ a b Verner 2001b, p. 589.
- ^ Hawass & Senussi 2008, p. 10.
- ^ a b c d e f Altenmüller 2001, p. 599.
- ^ a b El-Shahawy & Atiya 2005, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Schneider 1996, pp. 261–262.
- ^ Clayton 1994, p. 60.
- ^ a b Málek 2000a, p. 100.
- ^ Rice 1999, p. 141.
- ^ Strudwick 2005, p. xxx.
- ^ von Beckerath 1999, p. 285.
- ^ a b c Hornung 2012, p. 491.
- ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e f Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 558.
- ^ a b c d e f Leprohon 2013, p. 39.
- ^ Clayton 1994, p. 61.
- ^ a b Verner 1985a, p. 284.
- ^ Verner 1985a, pp. 282–283.
- ^ Scheele-Schweitzer 2007, pp. 91–94.
- ^ Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 558 & 560.
- ^ Verner 2001a, p. 401.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Verner 2001a, p. 400.
- ^ Kanawati 2001, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Verner 2001a, p. 414.
- ^ Verner 1999a, p. 76, fig. 6.
- ^ Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 91 & 95.
- ^ Verner, Callender & Strouhal 2002, p. 91.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 135 & 166.
- ^ a b c d Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 152.
- ^ a b Verner 2000, p. 581.
- ^ Mariette 1864, p. 4, pl. 17.
- ^ a b Baker 2008, p. 251.
- ^ a b c Waddell 1971, p. 51.
- ^ a b Verner 1985a, p. 282.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 135.
- ^ Posener-Kriéger 1976, vol. II, p. 530.
- ^ Verner 1980, p. 261.
- ^ a b Verner 1985a, pp. 281–284.
- ^ Roth 2001, p. 106.
- ^ a b c d e Krejčí, Arias Kytnarová & Odler 2015, p. 40.
- ^ Schmitz 1976, p. 29.
- ^ Verner, Posener-Kriéger & Jánosi 1995, p. 171.
- ^ Strudwick 2005, p. 27.
- ^ Baud 1999b, p. 418, see n. 24.
- ^ Verner, Posener-Kriéger & Jánosi 1995, p. 70.
- ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, pp. 64–69.
- ^ a b c d Discovery of the tomb of Khentkaus III 2015, Charles University website.
- ^ Krejčí, Arias Kytnarová & Odler 2015, pp. 28–42.
- ^ The Express Tribune 2015.
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- ^ Luxor Times 2015.
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- ^ a b Verner 2014, p. 58.
- ^ a b c d Baker 2008, pp. 427–428.
- ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 58–59.
- ^ von Beckerath 1999, pp. 56–59.
- ^ Verner 2000.
- ^ Verner 2001a.
- ^ Verner 2001b.
- ^ Baud 1999a, p. 208.
- ^ a b Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 559.
- ^ a b Verner 2001a, p. 397.
- ^ Verner 2000, p. 602.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 142.
- ^ a b c d Verner 2000, p. 586.
- ^ a b Grimal 1992, p. 77.
- ^ Daressy 1915, p. 94.
- ^ Verner 2000, p. 583.
- ^ Verner 2001a, p. 396.
- ^ Verner 2000, p. 582.
- ^ Verner 2000, pp. 584–585 & fig. 1 p. 599.
- ^ Kaplony 1981, A. Text pp. 289–294 and B. Tafeln, 8lf.
- ^ Verner 2001a, p. 399.
- ^ Verner 2000, p. 585.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 85.
- ^ a b Verner 2003, p. 58.
- ^ a b Verner 2002, p. 310.
- ^ Verner 2000, p. 587.
- ^ a b c d Edwards 1999, p. 98.
- ^ Verner 1985b, pp. 274–275, pl. XLIX–LI.
- ^ von Beckerath 1997, p. 155.
- ^ Barta 1981, p. 23.
- ^ Grimal 1992, p. 116.
- ^ Grimal 1992, p. 117.
- ^ a b Lehner 2008, pp. 146–148.
- ^ Lehner 1999, p. 784.
- ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 138.
- ^ a b Verner 1999b, p. 331.
- ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 139.
- ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 140.
- ^ a b c Lehner 2008, p. 148.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, pp. 141.
- ^ Verner 2010, p. 91.
- ^ Verner & Bárta 2006, pp. 146–152.
- ^ Sourouzian 2010, p. 82.
- ^ a b c Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 169.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 79 & 170.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 79 & 169.
- ^ a b c Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 552.
- ^ Baker 2008, p. 250.
- ^ Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, pp. 558–559.
- ^ Strouhal & Vyhnánek 2000, p. 555.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 110.
- ^ a b Verner 1987, p. 294.
- ^ a b Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 111.
- ^ Épron et al. 1939–1966, vol. I pl. 37 & 44, vol. II pl. 183.
- ^ a b Verner 1987, p. 293.
- ^ Verner & Zemina 1994, p. 53.
- ^ Verner 1987, p. 296.
- ^ von Bissing, Borchardt & Kees 1905.
- ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 116–119, Table 3.
- ^ Lehner 2015, p. 293.
- ^ Málek 2000b, p. 245.
- ^ Morales 2006, pp. 328–329.
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- JSTOR 25150079.
- Verner, Miroslav (1985a). "Un roi de la Ve dynastie. Rêneferef ou Rênefer ?". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). 85: 281–284.
- Verner, Miroslav (1985b). "Les sculptures de Rêneferef découvertes à Abousir". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). 85: 267–280.
- Verner, Miroslav (1987). "Remarques sur le temple solaire ḤTP-Rˁ et la date du mastaba de Ti". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (in French). 87: 293–297.
- Verner, Miroslav; Zemina, Milan (1994). Forgotten pharaohs, lost pyramids: Abusir (PDF). Praha: Academia Škodaexport. ISBN 978-80-200-0022-4. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1 February 2011.
- Verner, Miroslav; Posener-Kriéger, Paule; Jánosi, Peter (1995). Abusir III : the pyramid complex of Khentkaus. Excavations of the Czech Institute of Egyptology. Praha: Universitas Carolina Pragensis: Academia. ISBN 978-80-200-0535-9.
- Verner, Miroslav (1999a). "Excavations at Abusir Preliminary Report 1997/8". Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 126: 70–77. S2CID 192824726.
- Verner, Miroslav (1999b). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove/Atlantic. ISBN 978-0-80-219863-1.
- Verner, Miroslav (2000). "Who was Shepseskara, and when did he reign?" (PDF). In Bárta, Miroslav; Krejčí, Jaromír (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute. pp. 581–602. ISBN 978-80-85425-39-0. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1 February 2011.
- Verner, Miroslav (2001a). "Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology" (PDF). Archiv Orientální. 69 (3): 363–418.
- Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom: An Overview". In ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- Verner, Miroslav; Callender, Vivienne; Strouhal, Evžen (2002). Abusir VI: Djedkare's family cemetery (PDF). Excavations of the Czech Institute of Egyptology. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University. ISBN 978-80-86277-22-6. Archived from the original(PDF) on 7 April 2013.
- Verner, Miroslav (2002). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3935-1.
- Verner, Miroslav (2003). Abusir: The Realm of Osiris. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-723-1.
- Verner, Miroslav; Bárta, Miroslav (2006). Abusir IX: the pyramid complex of Raneferef. The archaeology. Excavations of the Czech Institute of Egyptology. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology. ISBN 978-8-02-001357-6.
- Verner, Miroslav (2010). "Several considerations concerning the Old Kingdom royal palace (ˁḥ)" (PDF). Anthropologie, International Journal of Human Diversity and Evolution. XLVIII (2): 91–96.
- Verner, Miroslav (2014). Sons of the Sun. Rise and decline of the Fifth Dynasty. Prague: Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Arts. ISBN 978-80-7308-541-4.
- von Beckerath, Jürgen (1997). Burkard, Günter; Kessler, Dieter (eds.). Die Zeitbestimmung der Ägyptischen Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr (in German). Vol. 46. Münchner Ägyptologische Studien. ISBN 978-3805323109.
- von Beckerath, Jürgen (1999). Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (in German). Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : Philip von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-2591-2.
- OCLC 152524509.
- Waddell, William Gillan (1971). Manetho. Loeb classical library, 350. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press; W. Heinemann. OCLC 6246102.
- "4500 years old tomb of unknown Ancient Egyptian Queen discovered". Luxor Times. 4 January 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2017.