Neiye

Clear! as though right by your side.
Vague! as though it will not be attained.
Indiscernible! as though beyond the limitless.
The test of this is not far off:
Daily we make use of its inner power [de 德].
The Way is what infuses the body,
Yet people are unable to fix it in place.
It goes forth but does not return,
It comes back but does not stay.
Silent! none can hear its sound.
Suddenly stopping! it abides within the mind.
Obscure! we do not see its form.
Surging forth! it arises with us.
We do not see its form,
We do not hear its sound,
Yet we can perceive an order to its accomplishments.
We call it "the Way." (4, tr. Roth 1999: 52)

Thus, the term dao refers to a transient reality that a person needs to attract and to retain (Kirkland 1997: 13). The Neiye warns that forceful efforts cannot make the dao arrive or stay, only one's de "inner power" (see below) can attract it and other life forces (Kirkland 2008: 772).

Neiye verse 4 above depicts the Way as the ineffable cosmic power familiar from other early Daoist texts like the Daodejing, yet it has a much more tangible presence in the Neiye (Roth 1999: 102). Verse 5 says the Way is a constantly moving power that seems to come and go within the human mind.

The Way has no fixed position;
It abides within the excellent mind [善心].
When the mind is tranquil and the vital breath is regular [心靜氣理],
The Way can thereby be halted.
That Way is not distant from us;
When people attain it they are sustained
That Way is not separated from us;
When people accord with it they are harmonious.
Therefore: Concentrated! as though you could be roped together with it.
Indiscernible! as though beyond all locations.
The true state of that Way:
How could it be conceived of and pronounced upon?
Cultivate your mind, make your thoughts tranquil [修心靜意],
And the Way can thereby be attained. (tr. Roth 1999: 54)

Although constantly moving in and out of one's mind, the Way can stay within it when one cultivates tranquility through the regular and systematic practice of breathing meditation. While the Way is always present, one is aware of this presence within the mind only when it is properly cultivated (Roth 1999: 103).

De "inner power" is a basic concept in traditional Daoism meaning "inherent character; inner moral power; virtue; integrity", but the Neiye used de to mean the "acquisitional agency" through which one can receive qi, jing, shen, and dao (Kirkland 1997: 6). Thus, de "inner power" (which is cognate with de 得 "get; acquire"), is something that we "acquire" when all elements of the body/heart/mind are peaceful and aligned. Unlike other Daoist classics such as the Daodejing and Zhuangzi that describe de as intrinsic to everyone, the Neiye says one should practice daily self-control of thoughts and actions in order to build up one's de (Kirkland 1997: 7). Inner power is a distinct quality of mental concentration that arises naturally, along with tranquility, through the practice of proper posture and breathing meditation (Roth 1999: 105).

When your body is not aligned [形不正],
The inner power will not come.
When you are not tranquil within [中不靜],
Your mind will not be well ordered.
Align your body, assist the inner power [正形攝德],
Then it will gradually come on its own. (Verse 11, tr. Roth 1999: 66)

This inner power can be thought of as a psychological condition of "focused and balanced awareness from which the adept is able to respond spontaneously and harmoniously to whatever arises" (Roth 1999: 126).

"Neiye" physiological concepts developed in the intellectual background of the 4th century BCE, a period when Chinese philosophers, notably the ethical egoist Yang Zhu, first considered the question of maintaining one's own physical wellbeing (Harper 1998: 120). The chief innovation made in the "Neiye" is equating jing vital essence and qi vital breath/energy, which unites vital energy and essence with shen spirit/numen—thus naturalizing the old religious connotations of jing and shen into new physical meanings. This inventive physiological theory merged a person's physical and spiritual components, and made vital breath/energy the source of each. The "Neiye" opens with the statement that jing "vital essence" is the source of life. Then the text identifies the mind as the "lodging place for the vital essence", defines vital essence as the "essence of vital breath/energy", and links jing with the indwelling shen "spirit". De "inner power; virtue" serves as the mechanism by which the triad of vital energy, vital essence, and spirit are drawn to the body where they must be stored and concentrated in order to create a wellspring of vitality (Harper 1998: 119). The "Neiye" introduced the physiological theory that one could transform oneself into a sage through heartmind training that cultivates qi vital breath/energy, jing vital essence, and shen spirit/numen in the body (Harper 1998: 78, 112).

From a modern perspective, these 2500-year-old Neiye concepts seem enigmatic; qi "vital breath" constitutes both

According to the Neiye, there is a set of elusive life forces that enter and leave the human body, but will only remain within a person who has transformed him/herself into an efficient receptacle. For instance, "Cultivate your mind, make your thoughts tranquil, / And the Way can thereby be attained." (Verse 5), and "Diligently clean out [spirit's] lodging place / And its vital essence will naturally arrive." (13). Kirkland says a good analogy for these forces might be

The Neiye acclaims a variety of practices and techniques for acquiring, or metaphorically "tuning in" to, the subtle forces of the Way. Basic daily practices include proper alignment of one's body/heart/mind, breath meditation, and moderation in thinking and eating.

Practicing zhèng 正 '"alignment" of bodymind in order to attain jìng 靜 "tranquility" (cf. later

"Aligning the body" and "aligning the four limbs" are closely related. The former appears in Verse 11 (above): "When your body is not aligned [形不正], / The inner power will not come. / When you are not tranquil within [中不靜], / Your mind will not be well ordered. / "Align your body, assist the inner power [正形攝德], / Then it will gradually come on its own." The latter alignment of arms and legs creates a figurative she 舍 "guest-house; lodging" for jing "vital essence" in Verse 8.

If you can be aligned and be tranquil [能正能靜],
Only then can you be stable.
With a stable mind at your core [定心在中],
With the eyes and ears acute and clear,
And with the four limbs firm and fixed [四枝堅固],
You can thereby make a lodging place for the vital essence [可以為精舍].
The vital essence: it is the essence of the vital energy.
When the vital energy is guided, it [the vital essence] is generated,
But when it is generated, there is thought,
When there is thought, there is knowledge,
But when there is knowledge, then you must stop.
Whenever the forms of the mind have excessive knowledge,
You lose your vitality. (tr. Roth 1999: 60)

In both these verses, being aligned precedes being tranquil, and thus developing a stabilized mind. Neiye "alignment" apparently refers to sitting in a steady posture with the limbs aligned or squared up with one another, comparable to the vajrasana posture in Buddhist meditation (Roth 1999: 110).

This Neiye metaphor of "make a lodging place for the vital essence" refers to the primary mystical praxis, which Verse 13 (above) symbolically describes, "Diligently clean out its [the bodily shen's] lodging place [敬除其舍] / And its vital essence will naturally arrive [精將自來]". The method of "cleaning out [chú 除 "eliminate; remove; clean out"] the lodging place of the numinous" is essentially an apophatic process in which one "gradually and systematically removes the normal feelings, desires, thoughts, and perceptions that commonly occupy consciousness" (Roth 1999: 134).

Xinshu I repeats this Neiye metaphor: "The Tao is not far off, but it is hard to reach its limit. It rests together with man, but it is hard to grasp. Empty out your desires, and the numen will enter its abode. If the abode is not thoroughly swept clean, the numen will not remain there." (tr. Roth 1991: 623). It also adds recommendations to "open its doors" (the senses), "relinquish selfishness", and "stop talking" in order to give the practitioner shenming 神明 "numinous clarity" (Roth 1991: 625).

Systematic breath meditation practices in the Neiye usually involve sitting in a stable position, circulating and refining the qi "vital breath", in order to produce concentrated jing "vital essence", which is thought of as the material counterpart of psychological tranquility. Since vital essence is expended in everyday activities such perceiving, thinking, and feeling, one should minimize them. Aligning the body and emptying the mind will maximize physical vitality and psychological well-being (Roth 1999: 126).

Neiye Verse 24 describes breath meditation practice in which the adept shouyi 守一 "maintains the One" and yunqi 運氣 "revolves the qi", which brings about a profound tranquility.

When you enlarge your mind and let go of it,
When you relax your vital breath and expand it,
When your body is calm and unmoving:
And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances.
You will see profit and not be enticed by it,
You will see harm and not be frightened by it.
Relaxed and unwound, yet acutely sensitive,
In solitude you delight in your own person.
This is called "revolving the vital breath":
Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly. (24, tr. Roth 1999: 92)

Roth says this ancient reference to shouyi, which later became a central tenet of Daoist and Chinese Buddhist meditation (Kohn 1989), describes a contemplative technique in which one sits calmly and exclusively concentrates on the Way, which enables one to set aside all the "disturbances of perceptions, thoughts, emotions, and desires that normally fill your conscious mind" (1999: 116).

Verse 17 provides specific details about regularized breath meditation. Breathing is said to "coil and uncoil" (zhōu 周 "encircle; surround" and kuān 寬 "let go; release; stretch out; extend") or "contract and expand" (mì 密 "snug; condense; squeezed together" and shū 舒 "stretch; spread out; expand; unfold"), with coiling/contracting referring to exhalation and uncoiling/expanding to inhalation (Roth 1991: 619).

For all [to practice] this Way:
You must coil, you must contract,
You must uncoil, you must expand,
You must be firm, you must be regular [in this practice].
Hold fast to this excellent [practice]; do not let go of it.
Chase away the excessive; abandon the trivial.
And when you reach its ultimate limit
You will return to the Way and its inner power. (18, tr. Roth 1999: 78)

In addition to discussing mystical transformation through vital breath circulation, the Neiye recommends moderation in thought and diet so that the vital energy can flow freely and harmony can be achieved (Roth 1991: 619). For instance,

Deep thinking generates knowledge.
Idleness and carelessness generate worry.
Cruelty and arrogance generate resentment.
Worry and grief generate illness.
When illness reaches a distressing degree, you die.
When you think about something and don't let go of it,
Internally you will be distressed, externally you will be weak.
Do not plan things out in advance
Or else your vitality will cede its dwelling.
In eating, it is best not to fill up;
In thinking, it is best not to overdo.
Limit these to the appropriate degree
And you will naturally reach it [vitality]. (20, tr. Roth 1999: 84)

The Neiye also discusses common health concerns such as the "way of eating".

For all the Way of eating [食之道] is that:
Overfilling yourself with food will impair your vital energy
And cause your body to deteriorate.
Overrestricting your consumption causes the bones to wither
And the blood to congeal.
The mean between overfilling and overrestricting:
This is called "harmonious completion."
It is where the vital essence lodges
And knowledge is generated. ... (23, tr. Roth 1999: 90)

These holistic descriptions of harmonizing body, mind, and spirit are early references to the practice later called yǎngshēng 養生 "nourishing one's vital principle" (Roth 1999: 122).

Influences

The c. 4th-century Neiye had long-reaching effects on Daoism and Chinese culture. It influenced classic texts such as the Daodejing and Zhuangzi, as well as what later became

Another distinctive feature of the Neiye is that it lacks the early Chinese idea of Tian "Heaven" as a beneficent agency overseeing and guiding life. Both the Confucians and the Mohists shared ideas about Tian Heaven as the divine ruler and the Tianzi Son of Heaven as the earthly ruler (Kirkland 1997: 17). The character tian 天 appears in a number of Neiye passages, in which Roth translates it in the naturalistic sense as "the heavens" (for instance, "Bright!—as if ascending the heavens", Verse 2 above) rather than the usual deified "heaven; Heaven" (1999: 43).

To illustrate the c. 4th-century BCE Neiye's effects on early Daoism, examples are given below from the c. 3rd-century BCE Daodejing and the c. 3rd/2nd-century BCE Zhuangzi.

The Neiye and Daodejing have parallels as well as differences. Both texts contain teachings that originated in an oral tradition. The Neiye, like much of the Daodejing, is primarily composed in rhymed verse, and some scholars believe that certain sections may have been borrowed from an early Daoist hymn (Rickett 1985–98: 154). Harper suggests both texts were "canons of physical cultivation theory" meant for recitation by initiates who could have received fuller knowledge of its meaning either orally or in supplementary texts (1987: 561).

Both texts also share a conception of Dao "the Way" as the ultimate power through which everything generates and develops (Roth 1999: 145). Compare how they describe the Way and the wanwu 萬物 "myriad things": "The myriad things are generated by it" and "The myriad things are completed by it" (Neiye verse 6) and "The Way gives birth to them, nourishes them, matures them, completes them, rests them, rears them, supports them, and protects them" (Daodejing chapter 51). Both texts also similarly describe the concept of de "inner power". In the Neiye (verses 4 and 2), de is the aspect of the Way that we "daily make use of" and which we develop through refining the qi vital breath into the jing vital essence through breath meditation. The Daodejing (chapter 55) also links de and jing comparing one "who is filled with an abundance of inner power" with the newborn babe in whom the vital essence is maximized. The Neijing's emphasis on the importance of attaining jing tranquility through breath meditation is also found in the Daodejing, where the term occurs in 7 of the 81 chapters, for instance, to "maintain tranquility is the central (practice)" (16, tr. Roth 1999: 147).

The most explicit Daodejing reference to practicing breath meditation contains three phrases with close parallels to the Neiye.

Amid the daily activity of the psyche, can you embrace the One and not depart from it?
When concentrating your vital breath until it is at its softest, can you be like a child?
Can you sweep clean your Profound Mirror so you are able to have no flaws in it?
In loving the people and governing the state, can you do it without using knowledge?
When the Gates of Heaven open and close, can you become feminine?
In clarifying all within the Four Directions, can you do it without using knowledge? (chapter 10, tr. Roth 1999: 150; cf. Mair 1994: 69)

First, this Daodejing term baoyi 抱一 "embracing the One" parallels the Neiye zhiyi 執一 "hold fast to the One" (verse 9, tr. Roth 1999: 62), and both terms refer to retaining a sense of union with the Way in everyday life. Second, zhuanqi 專氣 "concentrating the vital breath (until it is at its softest)" closely resembles tuanqi 摶氣 "concentrating your vital breath (as if numinous)" denoting to the practice of breath meditation (19, tr. Roth 1999: 82). Third, dichu xuanjian 滌除玄覽 " sweep clean your Profound Mirror" and the distinctive Neiye metaphor jingchu qi she 敬除其舍 "diligently clean out its lodging place" (13, tr. Roth 1999: 70) share the same syntax and verb chu "eliminate; remove". These three textual counterparts demonstrate that the redactors of both the Neiye and Daodejing shared knowledge of traditional proto-Daoist meditation techniques through which one could directly experience the Way and its inner power (Roth 1999: 152).

Notwithstanding these similarities and parallels, there are significant differences between the two texts. As already mentioned, the Neiye contains virtually no political philosophy, which is a major focus in the Daodejing. There is no trace in the Neiye of many now-famous themes of the Daodejing, such as

The c. 4th century BCE Neiye is connected with a corpus of 2nd century BCE medical and physical cultivation texts that archaeologists discovered in