Neodymium

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Neodymium, 60Nd
Neodymium
Pronunciation/ˌniːoʊˈdɪmiəm/ ​(NEE-oh-DIM-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Nd)
Neodymium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Nd
↓
U
praseodymium ← neodymium → promethium
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization289 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity27.45 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1595 1774 1998 (2296) (2715) (3336)
Atomic properties
Discovery
Carl Gustaf Mosander (1841)
First isolationCarl Auer von Welsbach (1885)
Named byCarl Auer von Welsbach (1885)
Isotopes of neodymium
Main isotopes[7] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
142Nd 27.2%
stable
143Nd 12.2% stable
144Nd 23.8% 2.29×1015 y α
140Ce
145Nd 8.3% stable
146Nd 17.2% stable
148Nd 5.80% stable
150Nd 5.60% 6.7×1018 y β−β−
150Sm
 Category: Neodymium
| references

Neodymium is a

malleable, silvery metal that quickly tarnishes in air and moisture. When oxidized, neodymium reacts quickly producing pink, purple/blue and yellow compounds in the +2, +3 and +4 oxidation states. It is generally regarded as having one of the most complex spectra of the elements.[8] Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach, who also discovered praseodymium. It is present in significant quantities in the minerals monazite and bastnäsite. Neodymium is not found naturally in metallic form or unmixed with other lanthanides, and it is usually refined for general use. Neodymium is fairly common—about as common as cobalt, nickel, or copper—and is widely distributed in the Earth's crust.[9] Most of the world's commercial neodymium is mined
in China, as is the case with many other rare-earth metals.

Neodymium compounds were first commercially used as glass dyes in 1927 and remain a popular additive. The color of neodymium compounds comes from the Nd3+ ion and is often a reddish-purple. This color changes with the type of lighting because of the interaction of the sharp light absorption bands of neodymium with ambient light enriched with the sharp visible emission bands of mercury, trivalent europium or terbium. Glasses that have been doped with neodymium are used in lasers that emit infrared with wavelengths between 1047 and 1062 nanometers. These lasers have been used in extremely high-power applications, such as in inertial confinement fusion. Neodymium is also used with various other substrate crystals, such as yttrium aluminium garnet in the Nd:YAG laser.

Neodymium

hybrid cars) and generators (e.g., aircraft and wind turbine electric generators).[11]

Physical properties

Metallic neodymium has a bright, silvery metallic luster.

ferromagnet.[18]

Electron configuration

Neodymium is the fourth member of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides praseodymium to its left and the radioactive element promethium to its right, and above the actinide uranium. Its 60 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f46s2, of which the six 4f and 6s electrons are valence. Like most other metals in the lanthanide series, neodymium usually only uses three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are strongly bound: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this increases with higher ionic charge. Neodymium can still lose a fourth electron because it comes early in the lanthanides, where the nuclear charge is still low enough and the 4f subshell energy high enough to allow the removal of further valence electrons.[19]

Chemical properties

Neodymium has a melting point of 1,024 °C (1,875 °F) and a boiling point of 3,074 °C (5,565 °F). Like other lanthanides, it usually has the oxidation state +3, but can also form in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, and even, in very rare conditions, +0.[4] Neodymium metal quickly oxidizes at ambient conditions,[13] forming an oxide layer like iron rust that can spall off and expose the metal to further oxidation; a centimeter-sized sample of neodymium corrodes completely in about a year. Nd3+ is generally soluble in water. Like its neighbor praseodymium, it readily burns at about 150 °C to form neodymium(III) oxide; the oxide then peels off, exposing the bulk metal to the further oxidation:[13]

4Nd + 3O2 → 2Nd2O3

Neodymium is an electropositive element, and it reacts slowly with cold water, or quickly with hot water, to form neodymium(III) hydroxide:[20]

2Nd (s) + 6H2O (l) → 2Nd(OH)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Neodymium metal reacts vigorously with all the stable halogens:[20]

2Nd (s) + 3F2 (g) → 2NdF3 (s) [a violet substance]
2Nd (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2NdCl3 (s) [a mauve substance]
2Nd (s) + 3Br2 (g) → 2NdBr3 (s) [a violet substance]
2Nd (s) + 3I2 (g) → 2NdI3 (s) [a green substance]

Neodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions that contain the lilac Nd(III) ion. These exist as a [Nd(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[21]

2Nd (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → 2Nd3+ (aq) + 3SO2−4 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Compounds

Main article: Neodymium compounds
Neodymium(III) sulfate
Neodymium acetate powder
Neodymium(III) hydroxide powder

Some of the most important neodymium compounds include:

Some neodymium compounds vary in color under different types of lighting.[22]

Organoneodymium compounds

See also: Organolanthanide chemistry

Organoneodymium compounds are compounds that have a neodymium–carbon bond. These compounds are similar to

cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric.[23]

Isotopes

Isotopes of neodymium (60Nd)
Main isotopes[7] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
142Nd 27.2%
stable
143Nd 12.2% stable
144Nd 23.8% 2.29×1015 y α
140Ce
145Nd 8.3% stable
146Nd 17.2% stable
148Nd 5.80% stable
150Nd 5.60% 6.7×1018 y β−β−
150Sm
talk
  • edit
    • Main article: Isotopes of neodymium

    Naturally occurring neodymium (60Nd) is composed of five stable

    radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than twelve days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are shorter than 70 seconds; the most stable artificial isotope
    is 147Nd with a half-life of 10.98 days.

    Neodymium also has 13 known

    beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 142Nd are element Pr (praseodymium) isotopes, and the primary products after 142Nd are element Pm (promethium) isotopes.[25] Four of the five stable isotopes are only observationally stable, which means that they are expected to undergo radioactive decay.[26] Additionally, some observationally stable isotopes of samarium are predicted to decay to isotopes of neodymium.[26]

    Neodymium isotopes are used in various scientific applications. 142Nd has been used for the production of short-lived Tm and Yb isotopes. 146Nd has been suggested for the production of 147Pm, which is a source of radioactive power. Several neodymium isotopes have been used for the production of other promethium isotopes. The decay from 147Sm (t1/2 = 1.06×1011 y) to the stable 143Nd allows for samarium–neodymium dating.[27] 150Nd has also been used to study double beta decay.[28]

    History

    Carl Auer von Welsbach (1858–1929), who discovered neodymium in 1885.[29]

    In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist

    spectroscopic analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity. Didymium was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1841, and pure neodymium was isolated from it in 1925. The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words neos (νέος), new, and didymos (διδύμος), twin.[13][38][39]

    Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s. Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium. Starting in the 1950s, high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite, a mineral rich in rare-earth elements.[13] The metal is obtained through electrolysis of its halide salts. Currently, most neodymium is extracted from bastnäsite and purified by solvent extraction. Ion-exchange purification is used for the highest purities (typically >99.99%). Since then, the glass technology has improved due to the improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide and the advancement of glass technology in general. Early methods of separating the lanthanides depended on fractional crystallization, which did not allow for the isolation of high-purity neodymium until the aforementioned ion exchange methods were developed after World War II.[40]

    Occurrence and production

    Occurrence

    Bastnäsite

    Neodymium is rarely found in nature as a free element, instead occurring as ores, such as monazite and bastnäsite (these are mineral group names rather than single mineral names) that contain small amounts of all rare-earth metals. In these minerals neodymium is rarely dominant; some exceptions include monazite-(Nd) and kozoite-(Nd).[41] The main mining areas are in China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia.

    The Nd3+ ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Pr and Nd).[42] Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride. The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.[42]

    Solar System abundances[43]
    Atomic
    number     		Element Relative
    amount
    42 Molybdenum 2.771
    47 Silver 0.590
    50 Tin 4.699
    58 Cerium 1.205
    59 Praseodymium 0.205
    60 Neodymium 1
    74 Tungsten 0.054
    90 Thorium 0.054
    92 Uranium 0.022

    In space

    Neodymium's per-particle abundance in the

    ppb (parts per billion).[43][b] This figure is about two thirds of that of platinum, but two and a half times more than mercury, and nearly five times more than gold.[43] The lanthanides are not usually found in space, and are much more abundant in the Earth's crust.[43][44]

    In the Earth's crust

    A line chart generally declining towards its right
    Neodymium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust for being a rare-earth metal. Most rare-earth metals are less abundant.

    Neodymium is classified as a lithophile under the Goldschmidt classification, meaning that it is generally found combined with oxygen. Although it belongs to the rare-earth metals, neodymium is not rare at all. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is about 41 mg/kg.[44] It is similar in abundance to lanthanum.

    Production

    The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons in 2004.

    Mining interests clash with native populations at those sites, due to the release of radioactive substances, mainly thorium, during the mining process.[48]

    Neodymium is typically 10–18% of the rare-earth content of commercial deposits of the light rare-earth-element minerals bastnäsite and monazite.[13] With neodymium compounds being the most strongly colored for the trivalent lanthanides, it can occasionally dominate the coloration of rare-earth minerals when competing chromophores are absent. It usually gives a pink coloration. Outstanding examples of this include monazite crystals from the tin deposits in Llallagua, Bolivia; ancylite from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada; or lanthanite from Lower Saucon Township, Pennsylvania. As with neodymium glasses, such minerals change their colors under the differing lighting conditions. The absorption bands of neodymium interact with the visible emission spectrum of mercury vapor, with the unfiltered shortwave UV light causing neodymium-containing minerals to reflect a distinctive green color. This can be observed with monazite-containing sands or bastnäsite-containing ore.[49]

    The demand for mineral resources, such as

    hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles, wind turbines, home appliances, computers, and many small consumer electronic devices.[51] Furthermore, they are indispensable for energy savings. Toward achieving the objectives of the Paris Agreement, the demand for NdFeB magnets is expected to increase significantly in the future.[51]

    Applications

    Magnets

    Further information: Neodymium magnet
    hard drive

    permanent magnets known. A neodymium magnet of a few tens of grams can lift a thousand times its own weight, and can snap together with enough force to break bones. These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than samarium–cobalt magnets. However, they are not superior in every aspect, as neodymium-based magnets lose their magnetism at lower temperatures[52] and tend to corrode,[53] while samarium–cobalt magnets do not.[54]

    Neodymium magnets appear in products such as

    hard disks where low mass, small volume, or strong magnetic fields are required. Neodymium is used in the electric motors of hybrid and electric automobiles and in the electricity generators of some designs of commercial wind turbines (only wind turbines with "permanent magnet" generators use neodymium). For example, drive electric motors of each Toyota Prius require one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of neodymium per vehicle.[11]

    Glass

    incandescent
    on the right.
    Didymium glasses

    Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of neodymium oxide (Nd2O3) in the glass melt. In daylight or incandescent light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under fluorescent lighting. Neodymium may be used to color glass in shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray.[55]

    The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927. The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day. Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e.g. Lalique, in France, or Murano). Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to 1980.[56] Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China.[57]

    The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under

    silica used to make the glass. The same forbidden nature of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity. The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "rare-earth doped" glasses. Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content of the glass might have needed adjustments.[58]

    Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated.[13] Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae.[59] Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass.[60]

    Nd:YAG laser rod

    Neodymium is a component of "didymium" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and praseodymium) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589 nm. The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578 nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting. Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting. Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in incandescent light bulbs. These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight.[61] During World War I, didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit Morse code across battlefields.[62] Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for enamels.[13]

    Lasers

    Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used in lasers as

    DPSS hand-held lasers and laser pointers.[64]

    Neodymium doped glass slabs used in extremely powerful lasers for inertial confinement fusion.

    Trivalent neodymium ion Nd3+ was the first lanthanide from rare-earth elements used for the generation of laser radiation. The Nd:CaWO4 laser was developed in 1961.[65] Historically, it was the third laser which was put into operation (the first was ruby, the second the U3+:CaF laser). Over the years the neodymium laser became one of the most used lasers for application purposes. The success of the Nd3+ ion lies in the structure of its energy levels and in the spectroscopic properties suitable for the generation of laser radiation. In 1964 Geusic et al.[66] demonstrated the operation of neodymium ion in YAG matrix Y3Al5O12. It is a four-level laser with lower threshold and with excellent mechanical and temperature properties. For optical pumping of this material it is possible to use non-coherent flashlamp radiation or a coherent diode beam.[67]

    Neodymium ions in various types of ionic crystals, and also in glasses, act as a laser gain medium, typically emitting 1064 nm light from a particular atomic transition in the neodymium ion, after being "pumped" into excitation from an external source

    The current laser at the UK

    terawatt neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads. HELEN can create plasmas of around 106 K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured.[68]

    Neodymium glass

    megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion. Nd:glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices.[69]

    Other

    Other applications of neodymium include:

    Biological role and precautions

    Neodymium
    Hazards
    GHS labelling:
    GHS07: Exclamation mark
    Warning
    H315, H319, H335
    P261, P305+P351+P338[78]
    NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
    NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
    2
    0
    0

    The early lanthanides, including neodymium, as well as lanthanum, cerium and praseodymium, have been found to be essential to some

    methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum.[79][80] Neodymium is not otherwise known to have a biological role in any other organisms.[81]

    Neodymium metal dust is combustible and therefore an explosion hazard. Neodymium compounds, as with all rare-earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however, its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated. Ingested neodymium salts are regarded as more toxic if they are soluble than if they are insoluble.[82] Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin. Breathing the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver. Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously.[38]

    Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread applications.[83] Commercially available magnets made from neodymium are exceptionally strong and can attract each other from large distances. If not handled carefully, they come together very quickly and forcefully, causing injuries. There is at least one documented case of a person losing a fingertip when two magnets he was using snapped together from 50 cm away.[84]

    Another risk of these powerful magnets is that if more than one magnet is ingested, they can pinch soft tissues in the

    Buckyballs line of toys, which were construction sets of small neodymium magnets.[85][86]

    See also

    Notes

    1. ^ The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are αa = 4.8×10−6/K, αc = 10.5×10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 6.7×10−6/K.[3]
    2. ^ Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2.6682×1010 parts; lead comprises 3.258 parts.

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    Bibliography

    External links

    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neodymium.
    Look up neodymium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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