Neolithic Europe
The European Neolithic is the period from the arrival of
The duration of the Neolithic varies from place to place, its end marked by the introduction of bronze tools: in
The spread of the Neolithic from the
Basic cultural characteristics
Regardless of specific chronology, many European Neolithic groups share basic characteristics, such as living in small-scale, family-based communities, subsisting on
There are also many differences, with some Neolithic communities in southeastern Europe living in heavily fortified settlements of 3,000–4,000 people (e.g., Sesklo in Greece) whereas Neolithic groups in Britain were small (possibly 50–100 people) and highly mobile cattle-herders.[original research?]
The details of the origin, chronology, social organization, subsistence practices and ideology of the peoples of Neolithic Europe are obtained from archaeology, and not historical records, since these people left none. Since the 1970s, population genetics has provided independent data on the population history of Neolithic Europe, including migration events and genetic relationships with peoples in South Asia.[original research?]
A further independent tool, linguistics, has contributed hypothetical reconstructions of early European languages and family trees with estimates of dating of splits, in particular theories on the relationship between speakers of Indo-European languages and Neolithic peoples. Some archaeologists believe that the expansion of Neolithic peoples from southwest Asia into Europe, marking the eclipse of Mesolithic culture, coincided with the introduction of Indo-European speakers,[3][page needed][4][page needed] whereas other archaeologists and many linguists believe the Indo-European languages were introduced from the Pontic-Caspian steppe during the succeeding Bronze Age.[5][page needed]
Archaeology
Archeologists trace the emergence of food-producing societies in the Levantine region of southwest Asia to the close of the last glacial period around 12,000 BC, and these developed into a number of regionally distinctive cultures by the eighth millennium BC. Remains of food-producing societies in the Aegean have been carbon-dated to c. 6500 BCE at Knossos, Franchthi Cave, and a number of mainland sites in Thessaly. Neolithic groups appear soon afterwards in the rest of Southeast Europe and south-central Europe. The Neolithic cultures of Southeast Europe (including the Aegean) show some continuity with groups in southwest Asia and Anatolia (e.g., Çatalhöyük).
In 2018, an 8,000-year-old ceramic figurine portraying the head of the "Mother Goddess", was found near Uzunovo, Vidin Province in Bulgaria, which pushes back the Neolithic revolution to 7th millennium BC.[6]
Current evidence suggests that Neolithic material culture was introduced to Europe via western Anatolia, and that similarities in cultures of North Africa and the Pontic steppes are due to diffusion out of Europe. All Neolithic sites in Europe contain
Archaeologists agreed for some time that the culture of the early Neolithic is relatively homogeneous, compared to the late Mesolithic. DNA studies tend to confirm this, indicating that agriculture was brought to Western Europe by the Aegean populations, that are known as 'the Aegean Neolithic farmers'. When these farmers arrived in Britain, DNA studies show that they did not seem to mix much with the earlier population of the Western Hunter-Gatherers. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement.[10][11]
The diffusion of these farmers across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years (6500–4000 BC). The Baltic region was penetrated a bit later, c. 3500 BCE, and there was also a delay in settling the
Investigation of the Neolithic skeletons found in the Talheim Death Pit suggests that prehistoric men from neighboring tribes were prepared to fight and kill each other in order to capture and secure women.[16] The mass grave at Talheim in southern Germany is one of the earliest known sites in the archaeological record that shows evidence of organised violence in Early Neolithic Europe, among various Linear Pottery culture tribes.[17]
In terms of overall size, some
End of the Neolithic and transition to the Copper age
With some exceptions, population levels rose rapidly at the beginning of the Neolithic until they reached the carrying capacity.[19] This was followed by a population crash of "enormous magnitude" after 5000 BC, with levels remaining low during the next 1,500 years.[19]
The oldest golden artifacts in the world (4600 BC - 4200 BC) are found in the Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria - grave offerings on exposition in Varna Archaeological Museum[20][21][22]
Populations began to rise after 3500 BC, with further dips and rises occurring between 3000 and 2500 BC but varying in date between regions.
The Chalcolithic Age in Europe started from about 3500 BC, followed soon after by the European Bronze Age. This also became a period of increased megalithic construction. From 3500 BC, copper was being used in the Balkans and eastern and central Europe. Also, the domestication of the horse took place during that time, resulting in the increased mobility of cultures.
Nearing the close of the Neolithic, c. 2500 BC, large numbers of Eurasian steppe peoples migrated in Southeast and Central from eastern Europe, from the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea.[26][27]
Gallery
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Female figurine, marble, Thessaly, 5300–3300 BC. Neolithic Greece
-
Ancient Neolithic Greece stone tools and weapons.
-
Ancient Neolithic Greece stone grinder.
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Clay vase with polychrome decoration, Dimini, Neolithic Greece (5300–3300 BC)
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Neolithic site of Nea Nikomedeia, Northern Greece
-
Neolithic long house, Germany, 5000 BC
-
Goseck Circle, Germany, 4900 BC
Genetics
Genetic studies since the 2010s have identified the genetic contribution of Neolithic farmers to modern European populations, providing quantitative results relevant to the long-standing "replacement model" vs. "demic diffusion" dispute in archaeology.
The earlier population of Europe were the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, called the "
A seminal 2014 study first identified the contribution of three main components to modern European lineages (the third being "
This 2014 study found evidence for genetic mixing between WHG and EEF throughout Europe, with the largest contribution of EEF in Mediterranean Europe (especially in Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and among Ashkenazi Jews), and the largest contribution of WHG in Northern Europe and among Basque people.[31]
Nevertheless, DNA studies show that when the Neolithic farmers arrived in Britain, these two groups did not seem to mix much. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement.[10][11]
Since 2014, further studies have refined the picture of interbreeding between EEF and WHG. In a 2017 analysis of 180 ancient DNA datasets of the Chalcolithic and Neolithic periods from Hungary, Germany and Spain, evidence was found of a prolonged period of interbreeding. Admixture took place regionally, from local hunter-gatherer populations, so that populations from the three regions (Germany, Iberia and Hungary) were genetically distinguishable at all stages of the Neolithic period, with a gradually increasing ratio of WHG ancestry of farming populations over time. This suggests that after the initial expansion of early farmers, there were no further long-range migrations substantial enough to homogenize the farming population, and that farming and hunter-gatherer populations existed side by side for many centuries, with ongoing gradual admixture throughout the 5th to 4th millennia BC (rather than a single admixture event on initial contact).[32] Admixture rates varied geographically; in the late Neolithic, WHG ancestry in farmers in Hungary was at around 10%, in Germany around 25% and in Iberia as high as 50%.[33]
During late Neolithic and early
Language
There is no direct evidence of the languages spoken in the Neolithic. Some proponents of
Discussion of hypothetical languages spoken in the European Neolithic is divided into two topics, Indo-European languages and "Pre-Indo-European" languages.
Early Indo-European languages are usually assumed to have reached Danubian (and maybe Central) Europe in the
Theories of "Pre-Indo-European" languages in Europe are built on scant evidence. The
In the north, a similar scenario to Indo-European is thought to have occurred with
Guus Kroonen brought up the so-called "Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis", based on the comparison of presumable Pre-Germanic and Pre-Greek substrate lexicon (especially agricultural terms without clear IE etymologies). Kroonen links that substrate to the gradual spread of agriculture in Neolithic Europe from Anatolia and the Balkans, and associates the Pre-Germanic agricultural substrate language with the Linear Pottery culture. The prefix *a- and the suffix *-it- are the most apparent linguistic markers by which a small group of "Agricultural" substrate words - i.e. *arwīt ("pea") or *gait ("goat") - can be isolated from the rest of the Proto-Germanic lexicon.[40] According to Aljoša Šorgo, there are at least 36 Proto-Germanic lexical items very likely originating from the "agricultural" substrate language (or a group of closely related languages). It is proposed by Šorgo that the Agricultural substrate was characterized by a four-vowel system of */æ/ */ɑ/ */i/ */u/, the presence of pre-nasalized stops, the absence of a semi-vowel */j/, a mobile stress accent, and reduction of unstressed vowels.[41]
List of cultures and sites
- Mesolithic/Para-Neolithic
- Franchthi Cave (Greece, 20th to 3rd millennium BC) First European Neolithic site.
- Lepenski Vir culture (Serbia, 10th/8th to 6th millennium BC)
- Megalithic culture (8th to 2nd millennium BC)
- Elshanka culture (Russia, 7th millennium BC) Oldest European pottery.
- Bug-Dniester culture (Moldova, Ukraine, 7th to 6th millennium BC)
- Ertebølle culture (Denmark, 6th to 4th millennium BC)
- Swifterbant culture (Netherlands, 6th to 4th millennium BC)
- Neman culture (Poland, Lithuania, 6th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Dnieper-Donets culture (Ukraine, 5th millennium BC)
- Early Neolithic
- Khirokitia (Cyprus, 7th to 4th millennium BC)
- Sesklo culture (Greece, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
- Cardium pottery culture (Mediterranean coast, 7th to 6th millennium BC)
- Kakanj culture (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
- Starčevo-Criș culture (Starčevo I, Körös, Criş, Central Balkans, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
- Karanovo culture (Bulgaria, 7th to 5th millennium BC)
- Dudești culture (Romania, 6th millennium BC)
- Katundas Cavern (Albania, 6th millennium BC)
- Middle Neolithic
- La Hoguette culture (France, 6th millennium BC)
- Körös culture (Hungary, Romania, 6th millennium BC)
- La Almagra pottery culture (Andalusia, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Linear Pottery culture (6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Circular enclosures
- Sopot culture (Croatia, Hungary, 6th to 4th millennium BC)
- Vinča culture (Balkans, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Cucuteni-Trypillian culture(Moldova, Ukraine, Romania, 6th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Tisza culture (Central Europe, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Langweiler (Germany, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Hamangia culture (Romania, Bulgaria, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Butmir culture (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Bonu Ighinu culture (Sardinia, 6th to 5th millennium BC)
- Għar Dalam phase (Malta, 5th millennium BC)
- Lengyel culture (Central Europe, 5th millennium BC)
- A culture in 4600 BC., Lower Bavaria, Germany
- A culture in
- Hinkelstein culture (Germany, 5th millennium BC)
- Stroke-ornamented ware culture (5th millennium BC)
- Dimini culture (Greece, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Cerny culture (France, 5th millennium BC)
- Danilo culture (Croatia, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Rössen culture (Central Europe, 5th millennium BC)
- San Ciriaco culture (Sardinia, 5th millennium BC)
- Chasséen culture (France, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Sredny Stog culture (Ukraine, Russia, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Michelsberg culture (Central Europe, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Boian culture (Romania, Bulgaria, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Pfyn culture (Switzerland, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Pit–Comb Ware culture, a.k.a. Comb Ceramic culture (Northeast Europe, 5th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Mariupol culture (Pontic Steppe, 5th millennium BC)
- Hembury culture (Britain, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Baalberge group (Germany, Czechia, 4th millennium BC)
- Cortaillod culture (Switzerland, 4th millennium BC)
- Mondsee group (Austria, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Horgen culture (Switzerland, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Hvar culture (Eastern Adriatic coast, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Windmill Hill culture (Britain, 4th millennium BC)
- Eneolithic (Chalcolithic)
- Samara culture (Russia, 5th millennium BC)
- Khvalynsk culture (Russia, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Gumelniţa culture (Romania, 5th millennium BC)
- Varna culture (Bulgaria, 5th millennium BC)
- Tiszapolgár culture (Central Europe, 5th millennium BC)
- Suvorovo culture (North-west Black Sea, 5th millennium BC)
- Novodanilovka culture (Ukraine, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Funnelbeaker culture (5th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Cernavodă culture (Bulgaria, Romania, 5th to 4th millennium BC)
- Repin culture (East European forest steppe, 4th millennium BC)
- Rinaldone culture (Italy, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Baden culture (Central Europe, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Usatove culture (North-west Black Sea, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Globular Amphora culture (Central Europe, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Yamnaya culture (Pontic-Caspian steppe, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Eutresis culture (Greece, 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Vučedol culture (North-west Balkans, Pannonian Plain, late 4th to 3rd millennium BC)
- Los Millares culture (Almería, Spain, 4th to 2nd millennium BC)
- Corded Ware culture, a.k.a. Battle-axe or Single Grave culture (Northern Europe, 3rd millennium BC)
- Gaudo culture (Italy, 4th to 3rd millennium BC, early Bronze Age)
- Beaker culture (3rd to 2nd millennium BC, early Bronze Age)
Megalithic
Some Neolithic cultures listed above are known for constructing
- c. 5000 BCE: Constructions in .
- c. 4800 BCE: Constructions in Brittany (Barnenez) and Poitou (Bougon).
- c. 4000 BCE: Constructions in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Lisbon), Spain (Galicia and Andalusia), France (central and southern), Corsica, England, Wales, Northern Ireland (Banbridge) and elsewhere.
- c. 3700 BCE: Constructions in Ireland (Carrowmore and elsewhere) and Spain (Dolmen of Menga, Antequera Dolmens Site, Málaga).
- c. 3600 BCE: Constructions in England (Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester), and Malta (Ġgantija and Mnajdra temples).
- c. 3500 BCE: Constructions in (central and south-west).
- c. 3400 BCE: Constructions in Ireland (Newgrange), Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark.
- c. 3200 BCE: Constructions in Malta (Ħaġar Qim and Tarxien).
- c. 3000 BCE: Constructions in France (Saumur, Dordogne, Languedoc, Biscay, and the Mediterranean coast), Spain (Los Millares), Belgium (Ardennes), and Orkney, as well as the first henges (circular earthworks) in Britain.
- c. 2900 BCE: Constructions in Spain (Tholos of El Romeral, Antequera Dolmens Site, Málaga)
- c. 2800 BCE: Climax of the megalithic Funnel-beaker culture in Denmark, and the construction of the henge at Stonehenge.
See also
References
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- Haak, Wolfgang; Forster, Peter; Bramanti, Barbara; Matsumura, Shuichi; Brandt, Guido; Tänzer, Marc; Villems, Richard; Renfrew, Colin; et al. (2005). "Ancient DNA from the First European Farmers in 7500-Year-Old Neolithic Sites". Science. 310 (5750): 1016–8. S2CID 11546893.
- Zvelebil, Marek (1989). "On the transition to farming in Europe, or what was spreading with the Neolithic: a reply to Ammerman (1989)". Antiquity. 63 (239): 379–83. S2CID 162882505. Archived from the originalon 2013-10-30.
- Zvelebil, Marek (2009). "Mesolithic prelude and neolithic revolution". In Zvelebil, Marek (ed.). Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies of Temperate Eurasia and Their Transition to Farming. Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–15. ISBN 978-0-521-10957-4.
- Zvelebil, Marek (2009). "Mesolithic societies and the transition to farming: problems of time, scale and organisation". In Zvelebil, Marek (ed.). Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies of Temperate Eurasia and Their Transition to Farming. Cambridge University Press. pp. 167–88. ISBN 978-0-521-10957-4.
Further reading
- Bellwood, Peter (2001). "Early Agriculturalist Population Diasporas? Farming, Languages, and Genes". S2CID 12157394.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08750-4.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2001). Genes, Peoples, and Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22873-3.
- Gimbutas, Marija (1989). The Language of the Goddess. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-250356-5.
- Fu Q, Posth C, Hajdinjak M, Petr M, Mallick S, Fernandes D, et al. (June 2016). "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature. 534 (7606): 200–5. PMID 27135931.
External links
Media related to Neolithic Europe at Wikimedia Commons
- Hofmanová, Zuzana; Kreutzer, Susanne; Hellenthal, Garrett; et al. (2016). "Early farmers from across Europe directly descended from Neolithic Aegeans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (25): 6886–6891. PMID 27274049.
- The genetic structure of the world's first farmers, Lazaridis et al, 2016
- Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe, Haak et al, 2015
- Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia, Allentoft et al, 2015
- Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe, Mathieson et al, 2015
- "The Horse, the Wheel and Language, How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes shaped the Modern World", David W Anthony, 2007
- General table of Neolithic sites in Europe
- Mario Alinei, et al., Paleolithic Continuity Theory of Indo-European Origins
- culture.gouv.fr: Life along the Danube 6500 years ago