Nepenthes
Nepenthes | |
---|---|
A rosette plant of N. peltata growing on Mount Hamiguitan, Mindanao, Philippines | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Caryophyllales |
Family: | Nepenthaceae Dumort.[1] |
Genus: | Nepenthes L. |
Species | |
See below or separate list. | |
Diversity[2] | |
150+ species | |
Synonyms[3] | |
|
Nepenthes (
Description
Nepenthes species usually consist of a shallow root system and a
The trap contains a fluid of the plant's own production, which may be watery or more viscous, and is used to drown the prey. This fluid contains
The lower part of the trap contains glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey. Along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a structure called the peristome (the "lip"), which is slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey, but offering an unsure footing. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is further enhanced in moist environments, where condensation may cause a thin water film to form on the surface of the peristome. When wet, the slippery surface of the peristome causes insects to ‘aquaplane’, or slip and fall, into the pitcher.[8] Above the peristome is a lid (the operculum); in many species, this keeps rain from diluting the fluid within the pitcher, the underside of which may contain nectar glands which attract prey.[5]
Nepenthes species usually produce two types of pitchers, known as leaf dimorphism. Appearing near the base of the plant are the large, lower traps, which typically sit on the ground. The upper or aerial pitchers are usually smaller, coloured differently, and possess different features from the lower pitchers. These upper pitchers usually form as the plant reaches maturity and the plant grows taller. To keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support. In some species (e.g. N. rafflesiana), different prey may be attracted by the two types of pitchers. This varied morphology also often makes identification of species difficult.[5]
Prey usually consists of
Nepenthes are insect-pollinated, the primary agents being flies (including blow flies, midges, and mosquitoes), moths, wasps, and butterflies.[14] Their smells can range from sweet to musty or fungus-like.[15] Seed is typically produced in a four-sided capsule which may contain 50–500 wind-distributed seeds, consisting of a central embryo and two wings, one on either side (though N. pervillei differs).
The genus is
Taxonomy
About 170 species of Nepenthes are currently recognised as valid. This number is increasing, with several new species being described each year.[21]
Etymology
The genus name Nepenthes was first published in 1737 in
If this is not Helen's Nepenthes, it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator! [translated from Latin by Harry Veitch][24]
The plant Linnaeus described was N. distillatoria, called bāndurā (බාඳුරා), a species from Sri Lanka.[15][page needed]
Nepenthes was formally published as a generic name in 1753 in Linnaeus's famous Species Plantarum, which established botanical nomenclature as it exists today. Nepenthes distillatoria is the type species of the genus.[25]
The name "monkey cups" was discussed in the May 1964 issue of
The carriers called them "monkey cups," a name I had heard elsewhere in reference to Nepenthes, but the implication that monkeys drink the pitcher fluid seemed farfetched. I later proved it true. In Sarawak, I found an orangutan that had been raised as a pet and later freed. As I approached it gingerly in the forest, I offered it a half-full pitcher. To my surprise, the ape accepted it, and with the finesse of a lady at tea, executed a delicate bottoms-up.
The plants are often called kantong semar (Semar's pocket) in Indonesia and sako ni Hudas (Judas' money bag) in the Philippines.[citation needed]
Evolution and phylogeny
An absence of evidence of intermediate species, fossil or living (i.e. a
Fossilized pollen of Nepenthes-like plants living on the northern
Distribution and habitat
The genus Nepenthes is mostly found within the
Because of the nature of the habitats that Nepenthes species occupy, they are often graded as either lowland or highland species, depending on their altitude above sea level, with 1,200 m (3,937 ft) the rough delineation between lowland and highland. Species growing at lower altitudes require continuously warm climates with little difference between day and night temperatures, whereas highland species thrive when they receive warm days and much cooler nights. Nepenthes lamii grows at a higher altitude than any other in the genus, up to 3,520 m (11,549 ft).[5][31]
Most Nepenthes species grow in environments that provide high
Ecological relationships
The most obvious interaction between Nepenthes species and their environments, including other organisms, is that of predator and prey. Nepenthes species certainly attract and kill their prey, albeit passively, through active production of attractive colours, sugary nectar, and even sweet scents. From this relationship, the plants primarily gain nitrogen and phosphorus to supplement their nutrient requirements for growth, given these soil nutrients are typically lacking. The most frequent prey is an abundant and diverse group of arthropods, with ants and other insects topping the menu. Other arthropods found frequently include spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, while snails and frogs are more unusual, but not unheard of. The most uncommon prey for Nepenthes species includes rats found in N. rajah. The composition of prey captured depends on many factors, including location, but can incorporate hundreds of individual insects and many different species.[5] While many Nepenthes species are generalists in what they capture, at least one, N. albomarginata, has specialised and almost exclusively traps termites and produces nearly no nectar. Nepenthes albomarginata gains its name from the ring of white trichomes directly beneath the peristome. These trichomes—or "hairs"—are palatable to termites and will attract them to the pitcher. In the course of collecting the edible trichomes, hundreds or thousands of termites will fall into the pitcher.[32][33]
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The blue bottle fly (ventralsurface.
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The same is true if the fly falls indorsally(wings-first).
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But the viscoelastic properties of N. rafflesiana digestive fluid prevent prey escape, whether the fall is ventral..
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..or dorsal. (All videos recorded at 500 frames/s)
Symbioses
Similarly, N. hemsleyana, which is native to Borneo, has a symbiotic partnership with Hardwicke's woolly bat.[40] During the day, a bat may roost above the digestive fluid inside the pitcher. While a bat is inside, it may defaecate, with the plant gaining nitrogen from the droppings. Further research has discovered that the shape and design of the pitcher has evolved to be an acoustic reflector to make it easier for bats to echo-locate, and distinguishes it from other closely related species that don't make good roosts.[41][42]
Infauna
Organisms that spend at least part of their lives within the pitchers of Nepenthes species are often called Nepenthes infauna. The most common infaunal species, often representing the top
Antimicrobial properties
Nepenthes digestive fluids are sterile before pitchers open and contain secondary metabolites and proteins that act as bactericides and fungicides after the pitcher opens. While the digestive fluid is being produced, the pitcher is not yet open, so there is no chance of microbial contamination. During pitcher development, at least 29 digestive proteins including proteases, chitinases, pathogenesis-related proteins and thaumatin-like proteins are produced in the pitcher fluid. In addition to breaking down prey, these can act as antimicrobial agents.[45] When the pitchers open, the fluid is exposed to bacteria, fungal spores, insects and rain. Often pitchers have a lid that covers the trap, excepting a few (e.g. N. lowii, N. attenboroughii and N. jamban), preventing rain water from entering. The lid inhibits rainwater from diluting the digestive fluid. Once the bacteria and fungi enter the fluid, secondary metabolites are produced in addition to antimicrobial proteins.[46] Naphthoquinones, a class of secondary metabolite, are commonly produced, and these either kill or inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria and fungi.[47] This adaptation could have evolved since Nepenthes plants that could produce secondary metabolites and antimicrobial proteins to kill bacteria and fungi were most likely more fit. Plants that produced antimicrobial compounds could prevent loss of valuable nutrients gained from insects within the pitcher. Since Nepenthes cannot digest certain bacteria and fungi, the bactericides and fungicides allow plants to maximize nutrient uptake.
Botanical history
The earliest known record of Nepenthes dates back to the 17th century. In 1658, French colonial governor Étienne de Flacourt published a description of a pitcher plant in his seminal work Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar. It reads:[48]
It is a plant growing about 3 feet high which carries at the end of its leaves, which are 7 inches long, a hollow flower or fruit resembling a small vase, with its own lid, a wonderful sight. There are red ones and yellow ones, the yellow being the biggest. The inhabitants of this country are reluctant to pick the flowers, saying that if somebody does pick them in passing, it will not fail to rain that day. As to that, I and all the other Frenchmen did pick them, but it did not rain. After rain these flowers are full of water, each one containing a good half-glass. [translated from French in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo][15]
Flacourt called the plant Amramatico, after a local name. More than a century later, this species was formally described as N. madagascariensis.[49]
The second species to be described was N. distillatoria, the Sri Lankan endemic. In 1677, Danish physician Thomas Bartholin made brief mention of it under the name Miranda herba, Latin for "marvellous herb".[50] Three years later, Dutch merchant Jacob Breyne referred to this species as Bandura zingalensium, after a local name for the plant.[51] Bandura subsequently became the most commonly used name for the tropical pitcher plants, until Linnaeus coined Nepenthes in 1737.[15]
Nepenthes distillatoria was again described in 1683, this time by Swedish physician and naturalist Herman Niklas Grim.[52] Grim called it Planta mirabilis destillatoria or the "miraculous distilling plant", and was the first to clearly illustrate a tropical pitcher plant.[15] Three years later, in 1686, English naturalist John Ray quoted Grim as saying:[53]
The root draws up moisture from the earth which with the help of the sun's rays rises up into the plant itself and then flows down through the stems and nerves of the leaves into the natural utensil to be stored there until used for human needs. [translated from Latin in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo][15]
One of the earliest illustrations of Nepenthes appears in Leonard Plukenet's Almagestum Botanicum of 1696.[54] The plant, called Utricaria vegetabilis zeylanensium, is undoubtedly N. distillatoria.[15]
Around the same time, German botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius discovered two new Nepenthes species in the Malay Archipelago. Rumphius illustrated the first one, now considered synonymous with N. mirabilis, and gave it the name Cantharifera, meaning "tankard-bearer". The second, referred to as Cantharifera alba, is thought to have been N. maxima. Rumphius described the plants in his most famous work, the six-volume Herbarium Amboinense, a catalogue of the flora of Ambon Island. However, it would not be published until many years after his death.[55]
After going blind in 1670, when the manuscript was only partially complete, Rumphius continued work on Herbarium Amboinensis with the help of clerks and artists. In 1687, with the project nearing completion, at least half of the illustrations were lost in a fire. Persevering, Rumphius and his helpers first completed the book in 1690. However, two years later, the ship carrying the manuscript to the Netherlands was attacked and sunk by the French, forcing them to start over from a copy that had fortunately been retained by Governor-General Johannes Camphuijs. The Herbarium Amboinensis finally arrived in the Netherlands in 1696. Even then, the first volume did not appear until 1741, 39 years after Rumphius's death. By this time, Linnaeus's name Nepenthes had become established.[15]
Nepenthes distillatoria was again illustrated in Johannes Burmann's Thesaurus Zeylanicus of 1737. The drawing depicts the end of a flowering stem with pitchers. Burmann refers to the plant as Bandura zeylanica.[56]
The next mention of tropical pitcher plants was made in 1790, when Portuguese priest João de Loureiro described Phyllamphora mirabilis, or the "marvellous urn-shaped leaf", from Vietnam. Despite living in the country for around 35 years, it seems unlikely that Loureiro observed living plants of this species, as he stated the lid is a moving part, actively opening and closing. In his most celebrated work, Flora Cochinchinensis, he writes:[57]
[...] (the) leaf-tip ends in a long hanging tendril, twisted spirally in the middle, from which hangs a sort of vase, oblong, pot-bellied, with a smooth lip with a projecting margin and a lid affixed to one side, which of its own nature freely opens and closes in order to receive the dew and store it. A marvellous work of the Lord! [translated from French in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo][15]
Phyllamphora mirabilis was eventually transferred to the genus Nepenthes by Rafarin in 1869.[58] As such, P. mirabilis is the basionym of this most cosmopolitan of tropical pitcher plant species.[35]
Loureiro's description of a moving lid was repeated by Jean Louis Marie Poiret in 1797. Poiret described two of the four Nepenthes species known at the time: N. madagascariensis and N. distillatoria. He gave the former its current name and called the latter Nepente de l'Inde, or simply "Nepenthes of India", although this species is absent from the mainland. In Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique, he included the following account:[49]
This urn is hollow, as I have just said, usually full of soft, clear water, and then closed. It opens during the day and more than half the liquid disappears, but this loss is repaired during the night, and the next day the urn is full again and closed by its lid. This is its sustenance, and enough for more than one day because it is always about half-full at the approach of night. [translated from French in Pitcher-Plants of Borneo][15]
With the discovery of new species and Sir Joseph Banks' original introduction of specimens to Europe in 1789, interest in Nepenthes grew throughout the 19th century, culminating in what has been called the "Golden Age of Nepenthes" in the 1880s.[5][15] However, the popularity of the plants dwindled in the early 20th century, before all but disappearing by World War II. This is evidenced by the fact that no new species were described between 1940 and 1966. The revival of global interest in the cultivation and study of Nepenthes is credited to Japanese botanist Shigeo Kurata, whose work in the 1960s and 1970s did much to bring attention to these plants.[21]
Cultivation
Nepenthes may be cultivated in greenhouses. Easier species include N. alata, N. ventricosa, N. khasiana, and N. sanguinea. These four species are highlanders (N. alata has both lowland and highland forms), some easy lowlander species are N. rafflesiana, N. bicalcarata, N. mirabilis, and N. hirsuta.[59]
Highland forms are those species that grow in habitats generally higher in elevation, and thus exposed to cooler evening temperatures. Lowland forms are those species growing nearer to sea level. Both forms respond best to rainwater (but some tap water works as long as it is flushed monthly with rainwater or water low in dissolved solid and chemicals), bright light (though some species can grow in full sun), a well-drained medium, good air circulation and relatively high humidity, although easier species such as N. alata can adapt to lower humidity environments. Highland species must have night-time cooling to thrive in the long term. Chemical fertilisers are best used at low strength. Occasional feeding with frozen (thawed before use) crickets may be beneficial. Terrarium culture of smaller plants, such as N. bellii, N. × trichocarpa and N. ampullaria, is possible, but most plants will get too large over time.[60][61]
Plants can be propagated by seed, cuttings, and tissue culture. Seeds are usually sown on damp chopped Sphagnum moss, or on sterile plant tissue culture media once they have been properly disinfected. The seeds generally become nonviable soon after harvesting, so seed are not usually the preferred method of propagation. A 1:1 mixture of orchid medium with moss or perlite has been used for germination and culture. Seed may take two months to germinate, and two years or more to yield mature plants. Cuttings may be rooted in damp Sphagnum moss in a plastic bag or tank with high humidity and moderate light. They can begin to root in one to two months and start to form pitchers in about six months. Tissue culture is now used commercially and helps reduce collection of wild plants, as well as making many rare species available to hobbyists at reasonable prices. Nepenthes species are considered threatened or endangered plants and all of them are listed in CITES Appendix II, with the exception of N. rajah and N. khasiana which are listed in CITES Appendix I.[62] The CITES listing means all international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is controlled by the CITES permitting system, with wild sourced specimens of Appendix I species prohibited from commercial international trade.
Hybrids and cultivars
There are many hybrid Nepenthes and numerous named cultivars. Some of the more well-known, artificially produced hybrids and cultivars include:[citation needed]
- N. × coccinea ((N. rafflesiana × N. ampullaria) × N. mirabilis)
- N. × ventrata (N. ventricosa × N. alata)
- N. × 'Bloody Mary' (N. ventricosa × N. ampullaria)
- N. 'D'amato' (N. lowii × N. ventricosa)
- N. × mixta (N. northiana × N. maxima)
- N. 'Syurga' (N. ventricosa × N. northiana)
- N. 'Menarik' (N. rafflesiana × N. veitchii)
- N. 'Emmarene' (N. khasiana × N. ventricosa)
- N. 'Judith Finn' (N. spathulata × N. veitchii)
- N. 'Gaya' (N. khasiana × (N. ventricosa × N. maxima))
See also
- Nepenthes classification
- Nepenthes infauna
- List of Nepenthes endophyte species
References
- hdl:10654/18083. Retrieved 2013-07-06.
- .
- ^ "Nepenthes L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h Barthlott, W., Porembski, S., Seine, R., and Theisen, I. 2007. The Curious World of Carnivorous Plants. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press.
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- ^ PMID 18030325.
- PMID 21135573.
- ^ Phillipps, A (1988). "A second record of rats as prey in Nepenthes rajah" (PDF). Carnivorous Plant Newsletter. 17 (2): 55.
- ^ Moran, J.A. 1991. The role and mechanism of Nepenthes rafflesiana pitchers as insect traps in Brunei. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland.
- ^ "Killer plant 'eats' great tit at Somerset nursery". BBC News. 5 August 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
- S2CID 247074534.
- PMID 20861680.
- ^ Clarke, C.M. 2001. Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Phillipps, A.; Lamb, A. (1996). Pitcher-Plants of Borneo. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia: Natural History Publications (Borneo).
- ^ Lowrey, T.K. 1991. No. 519: Chromosome and isozyme number in the Nepenthaceae. American Journal of Botany 78(6, supplement): 200–201.
- ^ a b Heubl, G.R.; Wistuba, A. (1997). "A cytological study of the genus Nepenthes L. (Nepenthaceae)". Sendtnera. 4: 169–174.
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- ^ Cytology of Nepenthes. LMU Department für Biologie.
- ^ Brittnacher, J. N.d. Evolution -- Nepenthes Phylogeny Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine. International Carnivorous Plant Society.
- ^ Pitcher Plants of Sarawak. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
- ^ Linnaeus, C. 1737. Nepenthes. Hortus Cliffortianus. Amsterdam.
- ISBN 978-0-521-86645-3.
- ^ Veitch, H.J. (1897). "Nepenthes". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 21 (2): 226–262.
- ^ Linnaeus, C (1753). "Nepenthes". Species Plantarum. 2: 955.
- ^ Zahl, P.A. (1964). "Malaysia's Giant Flowers and Insect-trapping Plants". National Geographic. 125 (5): 680–701.
- ^ a b Brittnacher, John (2011). "Evolution -- Nepenthes Phylogeny". ICPS Webpage. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
- PMID 23961098.
- . Retrieved 2019-11-03.
- ^ McPherson, S.R. 2009. Pitcher Plants of the Old World. 2 volumes. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole.
- ^ a b Jebb, M.; Cheek, M. (1997). "A skeletal revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae)". Blumea. 42: 1–106.
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- ^ a b c Clarke, C.M. 1997. Nepenthes of Borneo. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
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- ^ a b Walker, M. 2010. Giant meat-eating plants prefer to eat tree shrew poo. BBC Earth News, March 10, 2010.
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- ISBN 978-1-78283-436-6. Retrieved 19 November 2023.
- S2CID 26808467.
- ^ Beaver, R.A. (1979). "Fauna and foodwebs of pitcher plants in west Malaysia". Malayan Nature Journal. 33: 1–10.
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- ^ de Flacourt, É. 1658. Histoire de la Grande Isle de Madagascar.
- ^ a b Poiret, J.L.M. 1797. Népente. In: J.B. Lamarck Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique Vol. 4.
- ^ Bartholinus. "Miranda herba". Acta Medica et Philosophica Hafniensia. 3: 38.
- ^ Breyne, J. 1680. Bandura zingalensium etc. Prodromus Fasciculi Rariorum Plantarum 1: 18.
- ^ Grimm, H.N. 1683. Planta mirabilis destillatoria. In: Miscellanea curiosa sive Ephemeridum. Med. Phys. Germ. Acad. Nat. Cur. Decuriae 2, ann. prim. p. 363, f. 27.
- ^ Ray, J. 1686. Bandura cingalensium etc. Historia Plantarum 1: 721–722.
- ^ Plukenet, L. 1696. Utricaria vegetabilis zeylanensium. In: Almagestum Botanicum.
- ^ Rumphius, G.E. 1741–1750. Cantharifera. In: Herbarium Amboinense 5, lib. 7, cap. 61, p. 121, t. 59, t. 2.
- ^ Burmann, J. 1737. Thesaurus Zeylanicus. Amsterdam.
- ^ de Loureiro, J. 1790. Flora Cochinchinensis 2: 606–607.
- ^ Schlauer, J. N.d. Nepenthes mirabilis. Carnivorous Plant Database.
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- ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
- Danser's Monograph on Nepenthes (covers species from Malaysia, Indonesia and New Guinea, but not elsewhere)
- Nepenthaceae in: Watson, L., and M. J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The Families of Flowering Plants. Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, Information Retrieval.
Further reading
- Amagase, S.; Nakayama, S.; Tsugita, A. (1969). "Acid protease in Nepenthes. II. Study on the specificity of nepenthesin". The Journal of Biochemistry. 66 (4): 431–439. PMID 5354017.
- Athauda, S.B.P.; Matsumoto, K.; Rajapakshe, S.; Kuribayashi, M.; Kojima, M.; Kubomura-Yoshida, N.; Iwamatsu, A.; Shibata, C.; Inoue, H.; Takahashi, K. (2004). "Enzymatic and structural characterization of nepenthesin, a unique member of a novel subfamily of aspartic proteinases". Biochemical Journal. 381 (1): 295–306. PMID 15035659.
- Bauer, U.; Bohn, H.F.; Federle, W. (2008). "Harmless nectar source or deadly trap: Nepenthes pitchers are activated by rain, condensation and nectar". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 275 (1632): 259–265. PMID 18048280.
- Beaver, R.A. (1979). "Biological studies of the fauna of pitcher plants Nepenthes in west Malaysia". Annales de la Société Entomologique de France. 15: 3–17. S2CID 83749546.
- Beaver, R.A. 1983. The communities living in Nepenthes pitcher plants: fauna and food webs. In: J.H. Frank & L.P. Lounibos (eds.) Phytotelmata: Plants as Hosts for Aquatic Insect Communities. Plexus Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 129–159.
- Beaver, R.A. (1985). "Geographical variation in food web structure in Nepenthes pitcher plants". Ecological Entomology. 10 (3): 241–248. S2CID 85082186.
- Beekman, E.M. (2004). "A Note on the Priority of Rumphius' Observation of Decapod Crustacea Living In Nepenthes". Crustaceana. 77 (8): 1019–1021. .
- Bohn, H.F.; Federle, W. (2004). "Insect aquaplaning: Nepenthes pitcher plants capture prey with the peristome, a fully wettable water-lubricated anisotropic surface" (PDF). PMID 15383667.
- (in French) Boulay, J. 1997. Les Nepenthes. Dionée 38.
- Carlquist, S (1981). "Wood Anatomy of Nepenthaceae". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 108 (3): 324–330. JSTOR 2484711.
- Chia, T.F.; Aung, H.H.; Osipov, A.N.; Goh, N.K.; Chia, L.S. (2004). "Carnivorous pitcher plant uses free radicals in the digestion of prey". Redox Report. 9 (5): 255–261. PMID 15606978.
- Edwards, P (2005). "Growing Nepenthes – Part 1" (PDF). Victorian Carnivorous Plant Society Inc. 75: 6–8.
- Edwards, P (2005). "Growing Nepenthes – Part 2" (PDF). Victorian Carnivorous Plant Society Inc. 76: 6–9.
- Frazier, C.K. (2000). "The Enduring Controversies Concerning the Process of Protein Digestion in Nepenthes". S2CID 247153343.
- Jenkin, A (2005). "Nepenthes pollination" (PDF). Victorian Carnivorous Plant Society Inc. 75: 12–13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-07.
- Jennings, D.E.; Rohr, JR. (2011). "A review of the conservation threats to carnivorous plants". Biological Conservation. 144 (5): 1356–1363. .
- Karagatzides, J.D.; Ellison, A.M. (2009). "Construction costs, payback times, and the leaf economics of carnivorous plants". American Journal of Botany. 96 (9): 1612–1619. S2CID 42120981.
- Meimberg, H.; Wistuba, A.; Dittrich, P.; Heubl, G. (2001). "Molecular Phylogeny of Nepenthaceae Based on Cladistic Analysis of Plastid trnK Intron Sequence Data". Plant Biology. 3 (2): 164–175. S2CID 260252804.
- Mithöfer, A (2011). "Carnivorous pitcher plants: insights in an old topic". Phytochemistry. 72 (13): 1678–1682. PMID 21185041.
- Moran, J.A.; Booth, W.E.; Charles, J.K. (1999). "Aspects of Pitcher Morphology and Spectral Characteristics of Six Bornean Nepenthes Pitcher Plant Species: Implications for Prey Capture". Annals of Botany. 83 (5): 521–528. .
- Nosonovsky, M (2011). "Materials science: slippery when wetted". Nature. 477 (7365): 412–413. S2CID 205067351.
- Osunkoya, O.O.; Daud, S.D.; Di-Giusto, B.; Wimmer, F.L.; Holige, T.M. (2007). "Construction Costs and Physico-chemical Properties of the Assimilatory Organs of Nepenthes Species in Northern Borneo". Annals of Botany. 99 (5): 895–906. PMID 17452380.
- Pavlovič, A.; Masarovičová, E.; Hudák, J. (2007). "Carnivorous Syndrome in Asian Pitcher Plants of the Genus Nepenthes". Annals of Botany. 100 (3): 527–536. PMID 17664255.
- Poppinga, S.; Koch, K.; Bohn, H.F.; Barthlott, W. (2010). "Comparative and functional morphology of hierarchically structured anti-adhesive surfaces in carnivorous plants and kettle trap flowers". Functional Plant Biology. 37 (10): 952–961. doi:10.1071/FP10061.
- Riedel, M.; Eichner, A.; Meimberg, H.; Jetter, R. (2007). "Chemical composition of epicuticular wax crystals on the slippery zone in pitchers of five Nepenthes species and hybrids". Planta. 225 (6): 1517–1534. S2CID 23581314.
- Schulze, W.; Frommer, W.B.; Ward, J.M. (1999). "Transporters for ammonium, amino acids and peptides are expressed in pitchers of the carnivorous plant Nepenthes". The Plant Journal. 17 (6): 637–646. PMID 10230062.
- Vines, S.H. (1876). "On the Digestive Ferment of Nepenthes". Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. 11 (1): 124–127. PMID 17231131.
- Wong, T.-S.; Kang, S.H.; Tang, S.K.Y.; Smythe, E.J.; Hatton, B.D.; Grinthal, A.; Aizenberg, J. (2011). "Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicity" (PDF). Nature. 477 (7365): 443–447. S2CID 4300247.
External links
- Nepenthes – the Monkey Cups from the Botanical Society of America
- Nepenthes: The Interactive Guide at Tom's Carnivores
- How to Grow Nepenthes at Tom's Carnivores
- Nepenthes photographs at the Carnivorous Plant Photo Finder
- A video about Nepenthes rajah from The Private Life of Plants
- The Carnivorous Plant FAQ: Nepenthes by Barry Rice
- Evolution – Nepenthes Phylogeny from the International Carnivorous Plant Society
- Inner World of Nepenthes from the John Innes Centre