Neutrophil extracellular traps
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of
Structure and composition
High-resolution scanning
Analysis by immunofluorescence corroborated that NETs contain proteins from azurophilic granules (neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G and myeloperoxidase), specific granules (lactoferrin), tertiary granules (gelatinase), and the cytoplasm; however, CD63, actin, tubulin and various other cytoplasmatic proteins are not present in NETs.[2][5]
Anti-microbial activity
NETs disarm pathogens with antimicrobial proteins such as
More recently, it has also been shown that not only bacteria but also pathogenic
While it was originally proposed that NETs would be formed in tissues at a site of bacterial/yeast infection, NETs have also been shown to form within
NETosis
NET activation and release, or NETosis, is a dynamic process that can come in two forms, suicidal and vital NETosis. Overall, many of the key components of the process are similar for both types of NETosis, however, there are key differences in stimuli, timing, and ultimate result.[12]
Activation pathway
The full NETosis activation pathway is still under investigation but a few key proteins have been identified and slowly a full picture of the pathway is emerging. The process is thought to begin with
Suicidal NETosis
Suicidal NETosis was first described in a 2007 study that noted that the release of NETs resulted in neutrophil death through a different pathway than
Vital NETosis
Vital NETosis can be stimulated by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), other "bacterial products, TLR4-activated platelets, or complement proteins in tandem with
Regulation
The formation of NETs is regulated by the
NET-associated host damage
NETs might also have a deleterious effect on the host, because the extracellular exposure of histone complexes could play a role during the development of
NETs have also been found in cancer patients.[21] Significantly higher levels of NETs have been detected in cancer patients compared to healthy controls, and have been associated with poor prognosis and clinical outcome.[22] Preclinical research suggests that NETs are jointly responsible for cancer-related pathologies like thrombosis, organ failure and metastasis formation.[23] NETs can cause peripheral organ failure or organ dysfunction in cancer patients by obstructing vasculature, causing an inflammatory response, and by releasing cytotoxic components with a direct damaging effect on the tissue.[24]
NETs have been shown to contribute to the pathogenesis of HIV/SIV. NETs are capable of capturing HIV virions and destroying them.[25] There is an increase in NET production throughout the course of HIV/SIV, which is reduced by ART. In addition, NETs are able to capture and kill various immune cell groups such as CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, B cells, and monocytes. This effect is seen not only with neutrophils in the blood, but also in various tissues such as the gut, lung, liver, and blood vessels. NETs possibly contribute to the hypercoagulable state in HIV by trapping platelets, and expressing tissue factor.[26]
NETs also have a role in thrombosis and have been associated with stroke.[27][28][29]
These observations suggest that NETs might play an important role in the pathogenesis of infectious, inflammatory and thrombotic disorders.[30][31][32]
Due to the charged and 'sticky' nature of NETs, they may become a problem in cystic fibrosis sufferers, by increasing sputum viscosity. Treatments have focused on breaking down DNA within sputum, which is largely composed of host NET DNA.
A small study published in the journal
References
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External links
- Frontiers in Molecular Innate Immunity research topic about NET
- "Molecular mechanisms involved in neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation", PhD thesis, Jyaysi Desai, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany. Chemistry winner, Dance Your PhD, 2015.