Neva
Neva | |
---|---|
Native name | Нева (Russian) |
Location | |
Location | Northern Europe |
Country | Russian Federation |
Region | Leningrad Oblast, Saint Petersburg |
Cities | Shlisselburg, Kirovsk, Otradnoye, Saint Petersburg |
Physical characteristics | |
Source | Lake Ladoga |
• coordinates | 59°57′10″N 31°02′10″E / 59.95278°N 31.03611°E |
• elevation | 4.3 m (14 ft) |
Mouth | Neva Bay |
• coordinates | 59°57′50″N 30°13′20″E / 59.96389°N 30.22222°E |
• elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
Length | 74 km (46 mi) |
Basin size | 282,300 km2 (109,000 sq mi) |
Width | |
• minimum | 210 metres (690 ft) |
Discharge | |
• location | Saint Petersburg, Gulf of Finland (near mouth) |
• average | 2,628 m3/s (92,800 cu ft/s) |
• maximum | 4,550 m3/s (161,000 cu ft/s) |
Basin features | |
Tributaries | |
• left | Mga, Tosna, Izhora |
• right | Okhta |
The Neva (/ˈniːvə/ NEE-və, UK also /ˈneɪvə/ NAY-və; Russian: Нева́, IPA: [nʲɪˈva] ⓘ) is a river in northwestern Russia flowing from Lake Ladoga through the western part of Leningrad Oblast (historical region of Ingria) to the Neva Bay of the Gulf of Finland. Despite its modest length of 74 kilometres (46 mi), it is the fourth-largest river in Europe in terms of average discharge (after the Volga, the Danube and the Rhine).[1]
The Neva is the only river flowing from Lake Ladoga. It flows through the city of Saint Petersburg, the three smaller towns of Shlisselburg, Kirovsk and Otradnoye, and dozens of settlements. It is navigable throughout and is part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea–Baltic Canal. It is the site of many major historical events, including the Battle of the Neva in 1240 which gave Alexander Nevsky his name, the founding of Saint Petersburg in 1703, and the Siege of Leningrad by the German army during World War II. The river played a vital role in trade between Byzantium and Scandinavia.
Etymology
The earliest people in recorded history known to have inhabited the area are the
It has been postulated the name could derive from
Description
History of the delta
In the Paleozoic, 300–400 million years ago, all the delta region was covered by a sea. Modern relief, eminences, were formed by glacial scouring. Its retreat formed the Littorina Sea, the level of which was 7 to 9 metres (23 to 30 ft) higher than its successor the Baltic Sea. Then, the Tosna was flowing in the modern lower half of the Neva as today, into the Litorinal Sea. In the north of the Karelian Isthmus, the sea was united by a wide strait with Lake Ladoga. The Mga then flowed to the east, into Lake Ladoga, near the modern source of the Neva. Thus the Mga then was separate from the Tosna/lower-Neva basin.[3]
Near the modern Lake Ladoga, by
The valley is lined with glacial and post-glacial sediments and has changed little over 2,500 years.[5] The delta was formed at that time, technically a pseudodelta, as not from accumulation of river material but by scouring past sediments.[6]
Topography and hydrography
The Neva flows out of Lake Ladoga near Shlisselburg, flows through Neva's lowlands and discharges into the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland. It has a length of 74 kilometres (46 mi), and the shortest distance from the source to the mouth is 45 kilometres (28 mi). The river banks are low and steep, on average about 3 to 6 metres (10 to 20 ft) and 2 to 3 metres (7 to 10 ft) at the mouth. There are three sharp turns: the Ivanovskye rapids, at Nevsky Forest Park of the Ust-Slavyanka region (the so-called "Crooked Knee"), and near the Smolny Institute, below the mouth of the river Okhta.[6] The river declines 4.27 metres (14.0 ft) in elevation between source and mouth.[1] At one point the river crosses a moraine ridge and forms the Ivanovskye rapids. There, at the beginning of the rapids, is the narrowest part of the river: 210 metres (690 ft). The average flow rate in the rapids is about 0.8–1.1 metres per second (2.6–3.6 ft/s). The average width along the river is 400 to 600 metres (1,300 to 2,000 ft). The widest places, at 1,000 to 1,250 metres (3,280 to 4,100 ft), are in the delta, near the gates of the marine trading port, at the end of the Ivanovskye rapids near the confluence of the river Tosna, and near the island Fabrinchny near the source. The average depth is 8 to 11 metres (26 to 36 ft); the maximum of 24 metres (79 ft) is reached above the Liteyny Bridge, and the minimum of 4.0 to 4.5 metres (13 to 15 ft) is in Ivanovskye rapids.[7]
In the Neva basin, rainfall greatly exceeds evaporation; the latter accounts for only 37.7 percent of the water consumption from Neva and the remaining 62.3 percent is water runoff.[8] Since 1859, the largest volume of 116 cubic kilometres (28 cu mi) was observed in 1924 and the lowest in 1900 at 40.2 cubic kilometres (9.6 cu mi).[6] The average annual discharge is 78.9 cubic kilometres (18.9 cu mi) or 2,500 cubic metres per second (88,000 cu ft/s) on average.[1] Due to the uniform water flow from Lake Ladoga to the Neva over the whole year, there are almost no floods and corresponding water rise in the spring. The Neva freezes throughout from early December to early April. The ice thickness is 0.3 to 0.4 metres (1.0 to 1.3 ft) within Saint Petersburg and 0.5 to 0.6 metres (1.6 to 2.0 ft) in other areas. Ice congestion may form in winter in the upper reaches of the river, this sometimes causes upstream floods. Of the total ice volume of Lake Ladoga, 10.6 cubic kilometres (2.5 cu mi), less than 5 percent enters the Neva.[8] The average summer water temperature is 17 to 20 °C (63 to 68 °F), and the swimming season lasts only about 1.5 months. The water is fresh, with medium turbidity; the average salinity is 61.3 mg/L and the calcium bicarbonate content is 7 mg/L.[6]
Quantity | April to June |
July to September |
October to November |
December to March |
Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Runoff, km3 | 22.7 (28.5%) | 23.5 (29.4%) | 14.1 (17.7%) | 19.4 (24.4%) | 79.7 |
Suspended sediment, kt | 162 (31.7%) | 136 (26.7%) | 143 (28.0%) | 69 (13.6%) | 510 |
Bottom sediments, kt | 26.5 (40.8%) | 15.8 (24.3%) | 21.3 (32.7%) | 1.4 ( 2.2%) | 65.0 |
Ions runoff, kt | 735 (25.6%) | 729 (25.4%) | 712 (24.8%) | 694 (24.2%) | 2870 |
Heat sink, 1015 cal | 168 (28.4%) | 359 (60.7%) | 63 (10.7%) | 1 (0.2%) | 591 |
Ice runoff, km3 | 0.57 (81.4%) | – | 0.13 (18.6%) | – | 0.7 |
View of the mouth of the Ladoga Canal and the Neva | The Neva at the mouth of the Izhora | The Neva near the Peter the Great Bridge
|
View from the Trinity Bridge
|
Basin, tributaries and distributaries
The basin area of Neva is 5,000 km2,[9] including the pools of Lake Ladoga and Onega (281,000 km2). The basin contains 26,300 lakes and has a complex hydrological network of more than 48,300 rivers, however only 26 flow directly into Neva. The main tributaries are Mga, Tosna, Izhora, Slavyanka and Murzinka on the left, and Okhta and Chyornaya Rechka on the right side of Neva.[6]
The hydrological network had been altered by the development of Saint Petersburg through its entire history. When it was founded in 1703, the area was low and swampy and required construction of canals and ponds for drainage. The earth excavated during their construction was used to raise the city. At the end of the 19th century, the delta of Neva consisted of 48 rivers and canals and 101 islands. The most significant distributaries of the delta are listed in the table. Before construction of the Obvodny Canal, the left tributary of that area was the Volkovka; its part at the confluence is now called Monastyrka. The Ladoga Canal starts at the root of Neva and connects it along the southern coast of Lake Ladoga with the Volkhov.[10]
Some canals of the delta were filled over time, so that only 42 islands remained by 1972, all within the city limits of St. Petersburg. The largest islands are
Name | Region | Length, km |
---|---|---|
Great Neva | from the mouth of the Blagoveshchensky Bridge |
2.40 |
From the Blagoveshchensky Bridge to the Palace Bridge | 1.22 | |
Little Neva | 4.85 | |
Ekateringofka | 3.60 | |
Zhdanovka | 2.20 | |
Smolenka | 3.30 | |
Great Nevka | from the Neva to Little Nevka | 3.70 |
from Little Nevka to Middle Nevka | 2.05 | |
From Middle Nevka to Neva Bay | 2.15 | |
Middle Nevka | 2.60 | |
Little Nevka | 4.90 | |
Karpovka | 3.00 | |
Krestovka | 0.74 | |
Fontanka | 6.70 | |
Moyka | 4.67 | |
Griboyedov Canal | 5.00 | |
Pryazhka | 1.32 | |
Kryukov Canal | 1.15 | |
Obvodny Canal | 8.08 |
Flora and fauna
There is almost no aquatic vegetation in Neva. The river banks mostly consist of sand,
Nowadays, the upper regions of the river are dominated by birch and pine-birch grass-shrub forests and in the middle regions there are swampy pine forests.[12]
In St. Petersburg, along the Neva, there are many gardens and parks, including the Summer Garden, Field of Mars, Rumyantsev, Smolny, Alexander Gardens, Garden of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and many others.[10]
Because of the rapid flow, cold water and lack of quiet pools and aquatic vegetation the diversity of fish species in Neva is small. Permanent residents include such undemanding to environment species as perch, ruffe and roaches. Many fish species are transitory, of which commercial value have smelt, vendace and partly salmon.[15]
Floods
Floods in St. Petersburg are usually caused by the overflow of the delta of Neva and by surging water in the eastern part of
Besides flooding as a result of tidal waves, in 1903, 1921 and 1956 floods were caused by the melting of snow.[20]
7 November 1824, in front of Bolshoi Theatre
|
7 November 1824 | Sadovaya Street near the former Nikolsky Market, 15 November 1903 | Bolshaya Podyacheskaya Street, 25 November 1903 |
Boat transportation over Vasilievsky Island during the flood of 23 September 1924
|
Vladimirsky Avenue after the flood of 1924 | A pier during the flood of 18 October 1967 | Near the Mining Institute on 18 October 1967
|
Ecological condition
The Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia classifies the Neva as a "heavily polluted" river. The main pollutants include copper, zinc, manganese, nitrites and nitrogen. The dirtiest tributaries of the Neva are the Mga, Slavyanka, Ohta, and Chernaya.[21] Hundreds of factories pour wastewater into the Neva within St. Petersburg, and petroleum is regularly transported along the river. The annual influx of pollutants is 80,000 tonnes,[22] and the heaviest polluters are Power-and-heating Plant 2 (Russian: ТЭЦ-2), "Plastpolymer" and "Obukhov State Plant". The biggest polluters in the Leningrad Oblast are the cities of Shlisselburg, Kirovsk and Otradnoye, as well as the Kirov thermal power station. More than 40 oil spills are registered on the river every year.[23]
In 2008, the Federal Service of St. Petersburg announced that no beach of the Neva was fit for swimming.[22]
Cleaning of wastewater in Saint Petersburg started in 1979; by 1997, about 74% was purified. This rose to 85% in 2005, to 91.7% by 2008, and Feliks Karamzinov expected it to reach almost 100% by 2011 with the completion of the expansion of the main sewerage plant.[24]
History
Before 1700
Many sites of ancient people, up to nine thousand years old, were found within the territory of the Neva basin. It is believed that around twelve thousand years BC, Finnic people (Votes and Izhorians) moved to this area from the Ural Mountains.[25]
In the 8th and 9th centuries AD, the area was inhabited by the
As a result of the Russian defeat in the Ingrian War of 1610–17 and the concomitant Treaty of Stolbovo, the area of the Neva River became part of Swedish Ingria. Beginning in 1642, the capital of Ingria was Nyen, a city near the Nyenschantz fortress. Because of financial and religious oppression, much of the Orthodox population left the Neva region, emptying 60 percent of the villages by 1620. The abandoned areas became populated by people from the Karelian Isthmus and Savonia.[30]
Victory of Alexander Nevsky over the Swedes by B. Chorikov | Assault on the Alexander Kotzebue
|
Map of the Peter the Great Canal (1742) | Map of St. Petersburg (1720) |
Russian period
As a result of the
From 1727 to 1916, the temporary
In 1858, a "Joint-stock company St. Petersburg water supply" was established, which built the first water supply network in the city. A two-stage water purification station was constructed in 1911. The development of the sewerage system began only in 1920, after the October Revolution, and by 1941, the sewerage network was 1,130 kilometres (700 mi) long.[6]
Every winter from 1895 to 1910, electric
View down the Neva River between the Winter Palace and St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Engraving of 1753. | Palace Embankment (1826) | View on the Smolny Convent from Bolshaya Ohta (1851) | Tramways on the frozen Neva (more images) |
Soviet and modern periods
The first concrete bridge across Neva, the Volodarsky Bridge, was built in 1936.[35] During World War II, from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944, Leningrad was in the devastating German Siege. On 30 August 1941, the German army captured Mga and came to Neva. On 8 September Germans captured Shlisselburg and cut all land communications and waterways to St. Petersburg (then Leningrad). The siege was partly relieved in January 1943, and ended on 27 January 1944.[26]
A river station was built above the Volodarsky Bridge in 1970 which could accept 10 large ships at a time. Wastewater treatment plants were built in Krasnoselsk in 1978, on the Belyi Island in 1979–83, and in Olgino in 1987–94. The South-West Wastewater Treatment Plant was constructed in 2003–05.[6]
Commercial use
Neva has very few shoals and its banks are steep, making the river suited for navigation. Utkino Backwaters were constructed in the late 19th century to park unused ships. Neva is part of the major
To the west of Shlisselburg, an oil pipeline runs under the river. The pipeline is part of the
Near the
Neva is the main source of water (96 percent) of St. Petersburg and its suburbs. From 26 June 2009, St. Petersburg started processing the drinking water with ultraviolet light, abandoning the use of chlorine for disinfection.[40] The Neva also has developed fishery, both commercial and recreational.[7]
Bridges
- Ladozhsky Bridge – built in 1981 as a movable multi-span metal bridge on stone piers.
- Kuzminsky Railway Bridge – built in 1940 as a movable three-segment railway bridge.
St. Petersburg:
- Big Obukhovsky Bridge – built in 2004 as a cable-stayed bridgeconnecting Obukhovsky Defense avenue with Oktyabrskaya Embankment.
- Volodarsky Bridge – built in 1936 as a movable concrete bridge connecting Narodnaya and Ivanovo streets.
- Finland Railway Bridge – built in 1912 as a movable, metallic, double-segment railway bridge.
St. Petersburg, Neva delta
- Alexander Nevsky Bridge – built in 1965 as a movable concrete bridge connecting Alexander Nevsky Square and Zanevsky Avenue.
- Peter the Great Bridge– built in 1911 as a movable, three-segment, metal bridge connecting the historic center of St. Petersburg with the Malaya Ohta district.
- Liteyny Prospekt with Academician Lebedev Str. and Vyborg.
- Trinity Bridge (formerly the Kirov bridge) – built in 1903 as a five-segment movable metal bridge connecting Suvorov Square, Trinity Square and Kamennoostrovsky Prospekt.
- Vasilievsky Island.
- Blagoveshchensky Bridge (formerly the Lieutenant Schmidt Bridge) – built in 1850 as a movable seven-segment iron bridge connecting Labour Square with the 7th Line of Vasilievsky Island.[6]
Kuzminsky railway bridge | Big Obukhovsky Bridge
|
Liteyny Bridge | Blagoveshchensky Bridge
|
Construction of the
Attractions
Whereas most tourist attractions of Neva are located within St. Petersburg, there are several historical places upstream, in the Leningrad Oblast. They include the fortress Oreshek, which was built in 1323 on the Orekhovy Island at the source of Neva River, south-west of the Petrokrepost Bay, near the city of Shlisselburg. The waterfront of Schlisselburg has a monument of Peter I.[42] In the city, there are Blagoveshchensky Cathedral (1764–95) and a still functioning Orthodox church of St. Nicholas, built in 1739. On the river bank stands the Church of the Intercession. Raised in 2007, it is a wooden replica of a historical church which stood on the southern shore of Lake Onega. That church was constructed in 1708 and it burned down in 1963. It is believed to be the forerunner of the famous Kizhi Pogost.[43][44]
Old Ladoga Canal, built in the first half of the 18th century, is a water transport route along the shore of Lake Ladoga which is connecting the River Volkhov and Neva.[42] Some of its historical structures are preserved, such as a four-chamber granite sluice (1836) and a bridge (1832).
-
The Neva River in a nineteenth-century painting
-
Sunset over an ice-covered Neva River
Notable incidents
On 21 August 1963, a Soviet twinjet
References
- ^ a b c Nezhihovsky, R.A. (1981). Река Нева и Невская губа [Neva River and Neva Bay]. Gidrometeoizdat. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
- ^ a b Kallio, Petri. "Muinaiskarjalan uralilainen tausta". Academia. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
- ISBN 3-540-43201-9. Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- S2CID 42459564.
- ^ Darinskii, A.V. (1982). География Ленинграда [Geography of Leningrad]. Lenizdat. pp. 12–18. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ ISBN 5-8110-0107-X
- ^ a b Darinskii, A.V. (1982). География Ленинграда [Geography of Leningrad]. Lenizdat. pp. 34–45.
- ^ Council of Ministers of the USSR. 1981. p. 59.
- ^ "Neva, river". Saint Petersburg encyclopaedia. Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
- ^ a b c Историко-географический атлас "Ленинград" [Historical atlas "Leningrad"]. Moscow: GUGK CM USSR, 1977
- Council of Ministers of the USSR. 1981. p. 57.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Atlas of Leningrad Oblast. GUGK at USSR Council. 1967. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Darinskii, A. V. (1975) Ленинградская область (Leningrad oblast) Archived 10 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Lenizdat, pp. 48–49
- ^ Lihotkin, G. and Milash, N. (1968) Невский лесопарк Archived 25 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. (Nevsky Forest Park, in Russian). aroundspb.ru.
- ^ a b Все о реке Неве: мосты, притоки, наводнения... Archived 27 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine (All of the Neva River: bridges, tributaries, flooding ..., in Russian). nevariver.ru. Accessed 29 November 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-470-18986-3.
- ^ Ryabchuk, D. V.; et al. The Neva Bay (Russia) – antropogenic lagoon (PDF). All-Russia Research Geological Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
- ^ Water pollution in the hydroelectric power plants area[permanent dead link]
- ^ ПОЛНЫЙ ХРОНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК НАВОДНЕНИЙ В САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГЕ (ПЕТРОГРАДЕ, ЛЕНИНГРАДЕ) Archived 12 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine – a list of floods in St. Petersburg (in Russian). nevariver.ru
- ^ Morozova, A. (26 February 2010). "Из-за паводка в Петербурге могут разобрать мост" [A bridge might be removed in St. Petersburg because of the flood]. Komsomolskaya Pravda. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
- ^ "КАЧЕСТВО ПОВЕРХНОСТНЫХ ВОД РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ". Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) (quality of surface waters of the Russian Federation). Yearbook 2006. Institute of hydrochemistry, Rostov. ghi.aaanet.ru - ^ a b "Clean Neva" (in Russian). Greenpeace. Archived from the original on 10 March 2010.
- ^ "Clean Neva" (in Russian). Greenpeace. Archived from the original on 17 March 2010.
- ^ "В ближайшие два года Петербург будет очищать почти 100% сточных вод" [In the next two years, St. Petersburg will clean almost 100% of wastewater]. RIA Novosti. 20 October 2009. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
К концу года Петербург будет очищать 91,7% сточных вод, а до 2011 года - почти все 100%, сообщил журналистам руководитель ГУП "Водоканал Петербурга" Феликс Кармазинов.
- ISBN 5-87516-044-6
- ^ a b c Ezhov, V. A. (1986) Ленинградская область: исторический очерк Archived 10 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. (Leningrad Oblast: a historical sketch, in Russian), Lenizdat.
- ^ Electronic publication of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House), RAS Archived 1 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Lib.pushkinskijdom.ru. Retrieved 13 July 2013.
- ^ The biographical dictionary of the Society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, Volume 1. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. 1842. p. 855. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ISBN 0-521-83225-X.
- ^ В "ПЛЕНУ" У ШВЕДОВ Archived 27 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine. (In "captivity" of the Swedes, in Russian). Sablino.ru.
- ^ Трамвай в Санкт-Петербурге Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. (Tram in St. Petersburg, in Russian). www.opeterburge.ru
- ^ Через Неву по льду Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. (Over Neva on ice, in Russian). livejournal.com
- ^ За три копейки через Неву Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. (For 3 kopeks over Neva, in Russian), Vechernii St. Petersburg (5 February 2010).
- ISBN 5-87417-002-2. Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Antonov, B.I. "Bridges of St. petersburg", Glagol, 2002.
- ^ Russian river fleet and tourism INFOFLOT.RU Archived 20 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Map.infoflot.ru. Retrieved on 2013-07-13.
- ^ "Водный транспорт". Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). www.st-petersburg.ru (in Russian). - ^ Transneft has finished laying a tunnel under the Neva Archived 24 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Vsluh.ru (25 August 2008). Retrieved on 2013-07-13.
- ^ "Под Невой проложен тоннель для "Северного потока"". Archived from the original on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). energospace.ru (22 July 2009). - ^ Технологии очистки Archived 23 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. vodokanal.spb.ru (in Russian).
- ^ Ново-Адмиралтейский мост через Неву Archived 30 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine. (Novo Admiralty-bridge across the Neva, in Russian) Spb-projects.ru.
- ^ a b Староладожский и Новоладожский каналы Archived 15 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine. infoflot.ru (in Russian)
- ^ Ethnographic and open-air museums Archived 28 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO, pp. 170–173
- ^ Church of the Intercession Archived 30 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Bogoslovka.ru (in Russian). Retrieved on 2013-07-13.
- ^ "A320 splashed on the Hudson, as the Tu-124 on the Neva River in 1963". AviaPort. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
- ^ "Accident description". Aviation Safety Network. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
- ^ "The plane could land on the city but landed... on Neva". Petrovsky Courier, No 41 (211). 2 November 1998. Archived from the original on 27 April 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. .
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
.
- Neva River (in Russian)
- "Links to a collection of "ice-tram" service photos" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 31 January 2013.