Ojos del Salado
Ojos del Salado | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Elevation | 6,893 m (22,615 ft) [1] |
Prominence | 3,688 m (12,100 ft) |
Listing | Volcanic Seven Summits Seven Second Summits Country high point Ultra |
Coordinates | 27°06′32″S 68°32′28″W / 27.109°S 68.541°W[1] |
Geography | |
Location | Argentina–Chile |
Parent range | Andes |
Geology | |
Mountain type | stratovolcano |
Last eruption | 750 CE ± 250 years |
Climbing | |
First ascent | February 26, 1937, by Jan Alfred Szczepański and Justyn Wojsznis |
Easiest route | Scramble |
Nevado Ojos del Salado is a
Being close to the
Ojos del Salado was volcanically active during the Pleistocene[a] and Holocene[b], during which it mainly produced lava flows. Activity was in two phases and a depression or caldera formed in the course of its growth. The volcano was also impacted by eruptions of its neighbour to the west, Nevado Tres Cruces. The last eruption occurred around 750 CE; steam emissions observed in November 1993 may have constituted another eruptive event.
An international highway between Argentina and Chile crosses north of the mountain. Ojos del Salado can be ascended from both countries; the first ascent was made in 1937 by Jan Alfred Szczepański and Justyn Wojsznis , members of a Polish expedition in the Andes. During the middle of the 20th century there was a debate on whether Ojos del Salado or Aconcagua was the highest mountain in South America which was eventually resolved in favour of Aconcagua.
Name
The name Ojos del Salado [ˈo.xos d̪el saˈla.ð̞o] refers to a river, Río Salado[c] ("Salty River"), that a 1937 Polish expedition used to reach the mountain.[5] It is unclear whether the name was already used before by a Chile-Argentina boundary commission.[5] Another theory posits that the name means "salty eyes" or "salty springs", referring to mineral deposits on its flanks.[6] The mountain is often referred to as Cerro Ojos del Salado and Nevado Ojos del Salado; the former is a common term for "mountain" in Chile and the latter means "snowy", referring to snow-covered mountains.[7] There are two summits, known as the eastern or Argentine and western or Chilean summit; both lie along the international boundary and get their names after the country from which they can be more easily reached.[8]
Geography and geomorphology
Ojos del Salado is part of the High Andes
Ojos del Salado is a
The massif rises about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above the surrounding terrain and covers an oval area of about 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi)
Wind-driven erosion has produced
Lakes
Ojos del Salado hosts the highest lake in the world[45][46][g] in the form of the crater lake[48] in the summit crater.[49] Fed by permafrost and snowfields, it lies at 6,480–6,500 metres (21,260–21,330 ft) elevation. It is surrounded by fumaroles and covers an area of 6,000 square metres (65,000 sq ft). Waters in a creek flowing into this lake reach temperatures of 40.8 °C (105.4 °F).[50][48]
There are two lakes at 5,900 metres (19,400 ft) elevation on the northeastern slope, c. 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) away from the higher lake. Each has an area of 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft) and an estimated depth of 1 metre (3 ft 3 in).[50][48] Ephemeral lakes[h] occur at 5,900–6,000 metres (19,400–19,700 ft) elevation,[39] when meltwater from permafrost accumulates in closed depressions.[52] Such ponds may form in depressions at 6,380 metres (20,930 ft) elevation.[53] Some of the lakes may be permanently frozen.[54] Lakes might disappear with climate change owing to the breakdown of permafrost.[52]
Surroundings
The landscape is dominated by volcanoes,[55] many of Pleistocene or Holocene age,[56] and is the highest volcanic region in the world.[57] Young volcanoes have conical shapes and often feature summit craters.[58] Travellers have called the region a "moonscape".[59] There are hot springs in the region,[60] such as the Termas Laguna Verde at the shores of Laguna Verde, which are frequented by visitors.[61]
The volcano lies in the middle of an over 80-kilometre (50 mi) long east–west trending chain of volcanoes[18] that form a drainage divide and includes the volcanoes Nevado Tres Cruces, Incahuasi[62] and Cerro Blanco. This chain of volcanoes appears to be part of the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura tectonic lineament,[63] which corresponds to a geographic (southern boundary of the Puna de Atacama)[63] and tectonic discontinuity in the region.[64] The lineament may be a consequence of the subduction of the Copiapo Ridge at this latitude.[64] An alternative view is that the subducting Copiapo Ridge is actually located north of the lineament; this would be more consistent with the theory that the subduction of such ridges gives rise to gaps in the volcanic chain.[65]
Ice and glaciers
Climbing parties in 1956 reported two glaciers on the northwestern slope,[69] a 1958 report indicated that an ice body at 6,600 metres (21,700 ft) elevation descends into two branches and is followed at lower elevation by another glacier also with two branches—but in neither case with any evidence of movement—[70] and in 2014 there was ice in the summit crater[71] and substantial glaciers on the eastern and southern slopes, which reached elevations below 6,000 metres (20,000 ft).[72] There have been increases in ice area between 1974 and 1983[73] but between 1986 and 2000, ice area decreased by 40%.[74] The melting of the ice is expected to produce an increased discharge at first, but eventually ice diminishes to the point that runoff will decline.[75]
Penitentes have been encountered by climbers as early as 1937,[51] in 1949 there were reportedly 5–8 metres (16–26 ft) high penitentes on Ojos del Salado.[76] Penitentes are high ice spires[77] which form when ice sublimates in the intense insolation.[72]
Subsurface ice
Ice buried beneath sand
Past glaciation
Geology
In South America, there are about 200 volcanoes with evidence of eruptions during the Pleistocene and Holocene
The CVZ spans Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and contains about 1,100 recognized volcanoes, many of which are extremely old and are still recognizable owing to the low erosion rates in the region.[93] Apart from stratovolcanoes, the CVZ includes numerous calderas, isolated lava domes and lava flows, maars and pyroclastic cones. Most of the volcanoes are remote and thus constitute a low hazard.[98] Ojos del Salado is part of the CVZ and constitutes its southern boundary.[k] South of the volcano[94] volcanism ceased during the last six million years[102] and until 32° south, subduction takes place at a shallow angle and volcanism is absent in the "Pampean flat-slab". The shallow angle may be a consequence of the subduction of submarine topography, such as the Copiapo Ridge at the northern end of the Juan Fernández Ridge at the southern margin of the gap.[103][93]
Local
The basement in the region crops out in the Cordillera Claudio Gay area, and consists of
Volcanism in the region commenced 26 million years ago, when the
Composition
Volcanic rocks erupted by Ojos del Salado form a
Climate
Detailed climate data do not exist for the area.
Temperatures at lower elevations can exceed 10 °C (50 °F) but mean annual temperatures only reach −10 °C (14 °F).[114] Mean winds at Laguna Verde reach maximum speeds of 8–10 metres per second (26–33 ft/s) in winter, on the mountaintops they can exceed 10 metres per second (33 ft/s) and can impede climbing attempts. Winds blow strongest in the afternoon.[112] The winds produce aeolian landforms such as aeolian sediments,[115] dunes, gravel pavements, abraded rocks and megaripples at lower elevations,[116] and redeposit snow.[112]
Precipitation consists mostly of hail and snow.[19] It either amounts to less than 150 millimetres (5.9 in) per year[117] or reaches 300–500 millimetres (12–20 in) per year. Compared to sites farther north, precipitation falls primarily during winter,[55] although snowfall is common in summer.[117] Precipitation probably peaks at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) where the cloud base lies;[112] above that elevation it decreases to about 200 millimetres (7.9 in).[118] Snow cover in the area is sporadic[119] and quickly sublimates,[40] which hinders its measurement;[117] the average snow cover is less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) thick.[120]
Vegetation and fauna
Due to the dry climate, the region is a desert with little vegetation occurring above 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation.[40] However, lichens and mosses have been found at higher elevations[121] and green growths have been reported from the summit region.[122] As of 2007[update], there were no reports of plants in the waterbodies on Ojos del Salado.[46] Salt, acid and cold-tolerant bacteria have been recovered from sediments in the lakes on Ojos del Salado, consistent with microorganism samples from similar dry volcanic environments.[123]
A diverse flora and fauna has been described in the lower elevation regions south-southeast of Ojos del Salado.
West of the volcano lies the Nevado Tres Cruces National Park[9] and in 1991/1994 there were plans to make a national park on the Argentine side as well.[127] As of 2020[update], the establishment of a "zone of touristic interest" encompassing Ojos del Salado was under discussion in Chile.[128]
Eruption history
Volcanic activity probably commenced 26 million,
The volcano developed in two stages, with the more recent one grown on top of the older.[26] A somma volcano structure may have formed during an eruption that generated the pumice deposits on the lower slopes of the volcano, and there are potential air fall deposits north of it. Ojos del Salado may[18] or may not have produced pyroclastic flows; the neighbouring Nevado Tres Cruces c. 67,000 years ago produced extensive deposits on and around Ojos del Salado and in the valley between the two volcanoes; these were originally interpreted to have originated at Ojos del Salado.[130][131][31] A pyroclastic flow erupted by Ojos del Salado descended the Cazadero valley and constitutes the "El Quemado Ignimbrite".[132] Cerro Solo, whose emplacement was probably accompanied by intense pyroclastic flow activity,[133] and lava domes in the summit region are of Pleistocene age.[34] The long-term growth rate of Ojos del Salado amounts to 0.03–0.04 cubic kilometres per kiloare (0.0072–0.0096 cu mi/ka).[134]
Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 1.53 ± 0.13,[30] 1.2 ± 0.3 million and less than one million years ago for rocks in the northwestern part of Ojos del Salado,[135] 1.08 ± 0.09 million years for flows underlying the summit,[27] 1.08 ± 0.04 million years for the northern flank of Ojos del Salado, 700,000±50,000 for its western flank, 450,000±60,000 for El Muerto,[111] 340,000 ± 190,000 years for the summit rocks,[27] and 230,000±40,000 years for El Fraile.[111] Lava flows and a lava dome on the northern flank have yielded ages of 100,000 ± 17,000 and 35,000 years, respectively.[31][136] The "El Quemado Ignimbrite" may be either 200,000 or less than 50,000 years old.[115] The youngest dates reported are 30,000 years ago.[91]
Holocene and historical activity
The volcano produced lava flows during the Holocene,
There are no confirmed historical eruptions
Hazards
There is no information on volcanic hazards at Ojos del Salado
Fumarolic activity
There are fumaroles that emit sulfurous smokes.[60] Polish climbers in 1937 first observed this activity, 200 metres (650 ft) below the summit[3] and in the summit crater.[26] Fumarolic activity appears to be linked to a rift structure on the volcano.[18] Climbers in 1957 reported that the fumaroles were noisy and the emissions intense enough that with unfavourable winds they could suffocate people.[69] The fumaroles can be observed from satellites in the form of temperature anomalies which reach 4 K (7.2 °F) above background temperatures,[148] but the steam plumes are poorly visible from the ground except from close distance.[149] Geysers have been reported in the summit region.[122] According to a 2020 publication, the mountain was being evaluated for the generation of geothermal power.[150]
Human history
As Ojos del Salado is hidden behind[151] and nested among many peaks of similar elevation, for centuries travellers and mountaineers paid little attention to the mountain.[5] Its remoteness meant that for a long time, both its elevation and exact topography were unclear.[59] The positions and names of the mountains were frequently confused.[152][5]
The
Ascents and debate on elevation
In 1896, 1897 and 1903 the Chile-Argentina boundary commission identified a peak in the area and named it "Ojos del Salado";[5] according to a myth[159] their "Ojos del Salado" was a much smaller mountain and the actual Ojos del Salado was their "Peak 'e'".[5] The Polish climbers Justyn Wojsznis and Jan Szczepański from the Second Polish Andean Expedition[160] reached the summit on February 26, 1937[151] and left a cairn[s][161] but most of the maps and report they drafted were lost during World War II.[162]
After the Polish expedition, the mountain remained unclimbed until 1955, although expeditions went to its lower slopes and sometimes confused other peaks for Ojos del Salado. In that year an expedition from
The debate on the elevation and confusion about which mountain was Ojos del Salado and who climbed which peak prompted an expedition by the
Mountaineering and tourism
Ojos del Salado and the surrounding mountains draw fewer mountaineers than Aconcagua, with only several hundred climbers every year. Since the 1990s commercial tours have become important facilitators for ascents,
Ascent from the Chilean side is easier as the first refuge can be reached by car, but the actual climb is easier from the Argentine side.[178] A dirt road departing from the Chile Route 31 highway to Paso San Francisco heads south to Ojos del Salado, past Refugio Murray to the bivouac Refugio Universidad de Atacama/Jorge Rojas at 5,200 metres (17,100 ft) elevation,[10] from there a path goes to Refugio Tejos at 5,825 metres (19,111 ft) elevation and eventually to the summit of Ojos del Salado through scree-covered slopes and a steep ridge/couloir at the end.[179][173] Ropes and supports are available.[173] Between 2004 and 2015, a Chilean company held a mountaineering concession for the Chilean side and maintained the infrastructure there; after the end of the concession maintenance resumed in 2018.[180] From Argentina, the path runs from Cazadero Grande (Quemadito hut) along a large creek to its origin at Aguas Calientes at 4,200 metres (13,800 ft). From there it continues first up dry valleys to Acqua di Vicuna at 4,950 metres (16,240 ft) elevation, to the El Arenal plateau at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) elevation and eventually along various routes to Ojos del Salado.[181] The mountain is also accessible by vehicle, up to 6,650 metres (21,820 ft)[182] or 5,900 metres (19,400 ft) elevation, through a dirt road built after a helicopter accident in 1994.[183]
Other uses
Numerous record-high altitude attempts with vehicles have been carried out at Ojos del Salado, including with cars,[186] electric vehicles,[187] motorcycles[188] and utility vehicles.[189] A modified car was driven to an elevation of 6,688 metres (21,942 ft) in 2015.[187]
See also
- List of volcanoes in Argentina
- List of volcanoes in Chile
- Lists of volcanoes
- Llullaillaco
- Monte Pissis
- Tipas
Notes
- ^ The Pleistocene is the geological period between 2.58 million and 11,700 years ago.[2]
- ^ The Holocene is the geological period between 11,700 years ago and today.[2]
- Deutscher Alpenverein map from 2004, the Rio Salado originates next to Cerro Solo.[4]
- ^ Paso San Francisco one of the most important crossings of the Andes[15] with over 8,100 people crossing in 2018[16] when the road was paved.[17]
- ^ Relative to sea level; relative to base level Mauna Loa is considerably higher.[21]
- ^ Cryoturbation landforms form when frost triggers deformation of the soil.[42]
- ^ There are waterbodies at 6,600 metres (21,700 ft) elevation;[47] if considered lakes they may be the highest lakes in the world.[45][46]
- ^ An early report of such lakes goes back to 1937.[51]
- ^ Several metres wide valleys that are filled with erosion debris.[81]
- ^ Zentilli 1974 considered the volcano linked to the so-called "Easter Hot Line" of volcanoes[96] but they do not have a common magma.[97]
- ^ Other Pliocene-recent volcanoes such as Cerro Bonete[99] and Incapillo occur south of Ojos del Salado[100] but volcanoes there are more isolated and farther inland than these north of Ojos del Salado.[101]
- ^ The Devonian is the geological period between 419.2 ±3.2 and 358.9 ±0.4 million years ago.[2]
- ^ The Carboniferous is the geological period between 358.9 ±0.4 and 298.9 ±0.15 million years ago.[2]
- ^ The Oligocene is the geological period between 33.9 and 23.03 million years ago.[2]
- ^ The Miocene is the geological period between 23.03 and 5.333 million years ago.[2]
- ^ Historical eruptions may have been missed, however, due to the remote location of the volcano.[139]
- ^ The explorer
- ^ The large losses of animals and men during the crossing may have been the inspiration for the many death-themed mountain names in the region.[153]
- ^ Later Austrian climbers found out that the cairn was not located on the exact summit of Ojos del Salado.[151]
- acute mountain sickness are far away.[174]
- ^ Winds are a significant nuisance for mountaineers, damaging equipment, blinding people and causing dangerous wind chill.[175]
- ^ Brunier 1989 discussed astronomical observations on Ojos del Salado rather than directly making an observatory there.[184]
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- ^ Guinness World Records 2020.
- ^ Guinness World Records 2020b.
Sources
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External links
- Fleischer, K. (2004). Erstellung der Alpenvereinskarte "Nevado Ojos del Salado" (Thesis) (in German).
- Complete description of Ojos del Salado in Andeshandbook
- December 1, 2006, Star Trails at 19,000 Feet – NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day
- Andes information
- Ojos del Salado Satellite Elevation Data
- Peak bagger
- Summit post
- Peak list
- Virtual Aerial Video