New Netherland

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

New Netherland
Nieuw Nederland
1614–1667
1673–1674
Flag of New Netherland
Flag (1614–1652)
Seal of New Netherland
Seal
Dutch Reformed[3]
Demonym(s)New Netherlander
GovernmentSelf-governing colony
• Director
(List)
Establishment
• Establishment of the first settlers
1614
August 27, 1664
July 23, 1667
August 9, 1673
February 19, 1674
Population
• Estimate
350 (in 1630)[4]
4,301 (in 1650)[4]
9,000 (in 1674)
CurrencyDutch rijksdaalder, leeuwendaalder
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Lenapehoking
Province of New York
Province of New Jersey
Province of Pennsylvania
Delaware Colony
Connecticut Colony
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Today part of

New Netherland (

United States of America. The claimed territories extended from the Delmarva Peninsula to Cape Cod. Settlements were established in what became the states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut, with small outposts in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island
.

The colony was originally conceived by the Dutch West India Company (GWC) in 1621 to capitalize on the North American fur trade. Settlement initially stalled because of policy mismanagement by the GWC, and conflicts with Native Americans. The settlement of New Sweden by the Swedish South Company encroached on its southern flank, while its eastern border was redrawn to accommodate an expanding New England Confederation.

The colony experienced dramatic growth during the 1650s, and became a major center for trade across the North Atlantic. The Dutch conquered New Sweden in 1655, but during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, surrendered New Netherland to the English following the capture of New Amsterdam. In 1673, the Dutch retook the colony but relinquished it under the Treaty of Westminster (1674) that ended the Third Anglo-Dutch War.

The inhabitants of New Netherland (New Netherlanders) were European colonists, Native Americans, and Africans imported as slave laborers. Not including Native Americans, the colonial population, many of whom were not of Dutch descent,[7][8][9] was 4,301 in 1650,[4] and 8,000 to 9,000 at the time of transfer to England in 1674.

Origin

Netherlandish cartography
(c. 1570s–1670s).
A map of New Netherland and New England, with north to the right

During the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the

the Americas, the English had a settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, the French had small settlements at Port Royal and Quebec, and the Spanish were developing colonies in South America and the Caribbean.[11]

In 1609, English sea captain and explorer

Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod
.

Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific Ocean was between the

Upper New York Bay.[12] Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river that now bears his name. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later at the site of Troy, New York.[13]

Upon returning to the Netherlands, Hudson reported that he had found a fertile land and an amicable people willing to engage his crew in small-scale bartering of furs, trinkets, clothes, and small manufactured goods. His report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel van Meteren, the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest[14] in exploiting this new trade resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant-traders to fund more expeditions. Merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow-up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610.

In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two covert expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat respectively. Adriaen Block, Hendrick Christiaensen, and Cornelius Jacobsen Mey explored, surveyed, and mapped the area between Maryland and Massachusetts in four voyages made between 1611 and 1614. These surveys and charts were consolidated in Block's map, which used the name New Netherland for the first time; it was also called Nova Belgica on maps. During this period, there was some trading with the Native American population.

Fur trader

Juan Rodriguez was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent. He arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–1614, trapping for pelts and trading with the Indians as a representative of the Dutch. He was the first recorded non-native inhabitant of New York City.[15][16][17]

Development

Chartered trading companies

The West India House in Amsterdam, headquarters of the Dutch West India Company from 1623 to 1647
The storehouse of the Dutch West India Company in Amsterdam, built in 1642, became the headquarters of the board in 1647 because of financial difficulties after the loss of Dutch Brazil.

The immediate and intense competition among Dutch trading companies in the newly charted areas led to disputes in Amsterdam and calls for regulation. The

Adrian Block's map to win a patent that expired on 1 January 1618.[18]

The New Netherland Company also ordered a survey of the Delaware Valley, and Cornelis Hendricksz of Monnickendam explored the Zuyd Rivier (South River) in 1616 from its bay to its northernmost navigable reaches. His observations were preserved in a map drawn in 1616. Hendricksz made his voyages aboard the IJseren Vercken (Iron Hog), a vessel built in America. Despite the survey, the company was unable to secure an exclusive patent from the States General for the area between the 38th and 40th parallels.[19]

The States General issued patents in 1614 for the development of New Netherland as a private, commercial venture. Soon after, traders built Fort Nassau on Castle Island in the area of Albany up Hudson's river. The fort was to defend river traffic against interlopers and to conduct fur trading operations with the Indians. The location of the fort proved to be impractical, however, due to repeated flooding of the island in the summers, and it was abandoned in 1618[20] when the patent expired.

The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands granted a charter to the Dutch West India Company (GWC) (Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie) on 3 June 1621,[21] which gave the company the exclusive right to operate in West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope) and the Americas.[21]

Willem Usselincx was one of the founders of the GWC, and he promoted the concept that a main goal of the company should be to establish colonies in the New World. In 1620, Usselincx made a last appeal to the States General, which rejected his principal vision as a primary goal. The legislators preferred the formula of trading posts with small populations and a military presence to protect them, which was working in the East Indies, versus encouraging mass immigration and establishing large colonies. The company did not focus on colonization in America until 1654, when it was forced to surrender Dutch Brazil and forfeit the richest sugar-producing area in the world.

Pre-colonial population

Part of a series on
European colonization
of the Americas
 History portal

The first trading partners of the

Mohawks (members of the Iroquois Confederacy) conquered the Mahicans, who retreated to Connecticut. The Mohawks gained a near-monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch, as they controlled the upstate Adirondacks and Mohawk Valley through the center of New York.[23]

The Algonquin

northern New Jersey,[23] while the Susquehannocks lived west of the Delaware River
along the Susquehanna River, which the Dutch regarded as their boundary with Virginia.

Company policy required land to be purchased from the Indians. The Dutch West India Company would offer a land patent, and the recipient would be responsible for negotiating a deal with representatives of the local tribes, usually the sachem or high chief. The Indians referred to the Dutch colonists as Swannekins, or salt water people; they had vastly different conceptions of ownership and use of land than the colonists did, and difficulties sometimes arose concerning the expectations on both sides.

sewant or manufactured goods was a trade agreement and defense alliance, which gave them exclusive rights to farming, hunting, and fishing. Often, the Indians did not vacate the property, or reappeared seasonally according to their migration patterns. They were willing to share the land with the colonists, but the Indians did not intend to leave or give up access. This misunderstanding and other differences led to violent conflict later. At the same time, such differences marked the beginnings of a multicultural society.[25]

Early settlement

Main article: Governors Island
See also: Fortifications of New Netherland and New Netherland settlements
A map showing the area claimed by the Dutch in North America and several Dutch settlements compared to present-day boundaries

Like the French in the north, the Dutch focused their interest on the fur trade. To that end, they cultivated contingent relations with the Five Nations of the Iroquois to procure greater access to key central regions from which the skins came.

The Dutch encouraged a kind of feudal aristocracy over time, to attract settlers to the region of the Hudson River, in what became known as the system of the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions. Further south, a Swedish trading company that had ties with the Dutch tried to establish its first settlement along the Delaware River three years later. Without resources to consolidate its position, New Sweden was gradually absorbed by New Holland and later in Pennsylvania and Delaware.

In 1613, temporary camp comprising a number of small huts was built by the crew of the "Tijger" (Tiger), a Dutch ship under the command of Captain Adriaen Block, which had caught fire while sailing on the Hudson.[26] Soon after, the first of two Fort Nassaus was built at the confluence of the Hudson (North River) and Mohawk rivers, and small factorijen or trading posts went up, where commerce could be conducted with the Algonquian and Iroquois population, possibly at Schenectady, Esopus, Quinnipiac, Communipaw, and elsewhere.

In 1624, New Netherland became a province of the Dutch Republic, which had lowered the northern border of its North American dominion to

Director of the New Netherland. He was replaced the following year by Willem Verhulst
.

In June 1625, 45 additional colonists disembarked on Noten Eylant from three ships named Horse, Cow, and Sheep, which also delivered 103 horses, steers, cows, pigs, and sheep. Most settlers were dispersed to the various garrisons built across the territory: upstream to

Huguenots, or Africans (most as enslaved labor, some later gaining "half-free" status).[30][31]

North River and the Manhattan

Main article: New Amsterdam
See also:
History of Brooklyn; History of Albany, New York; Rondout, New York; and Bergen, New Netherland
A c. 1639 map, Manatvs gelegen op de Noot Riuier (Manhattan situated on the North River) with the north arrow pointing to the right

Director of the New Netherland in 1626 and made a decision that greatly affected the new colony. Originally, the capital of the province was to be located on the South River,[32] but it was soon realized that the location was susceptible to mosquito infestation in the summer and the freezing of its waterways in the winter. He chose instead the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the river explored by Hudson, at that time called the North River
.

Minuit traded some goods with the local population, and reported that he had purchased it from the natives, as was company policy. He ordered the construction of

Dutch Estates General and member of the board of the Dutch West India Company, Pieter Janszoon Schagen, to the Estates General in November 1626.[36] In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 (or 60 guilders) to US$24 (he arrived at $24 = Fl 60/2.5, because the US dollar was erroneously equated with the Dutch rijksdaalder having a standard value of 2.5 guilders).[37] "[A] variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars," as authors Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York.[38]

In 1626, sixty guilders was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006 and $963 in 2020, according to the Institute for Social History of Amsterdam.

Canarsee, who were willing to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for the island that was mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks, a band of the Wappinger.[42]

The port city of

Lange Eylandt towns.[44]

In the hope of encouraging immigration, the Dutch West India Company established the

Beverwijck grew from a trading post to a bustling, independent town in the midst of Rensselaerwyck, as did Wiltwyck, south of the patroonship in Esopus
country.

Kieft's War

Main article: Kieft's War

Tappan and Wecquaesgeek. Subsequently, a colonist was murdered in an act of revenge for some killings that had taken place years earlier and the Indians refused to turn over the perpetrator. Kieft suggested that they be taught a lesson by ransacking their villages. In an attempt to gain public support, he created the citizens commission the Council of Twelve Men
.

The Council did not rubber-stamp his ideas, as he had expected them to, but took the opportunity to mention grievances that they had with the company's mismanagement and its unresponsiveness to their suggestions. Kieft thanked and disbanded them and, against their advice, ordered that groups of Tappan and Wecquaesgeek be attacked at

sagamore Oratam.[23]

The colonists were disenchanted with Kieft, his ignorance of indigenous peoples, and the unresponsiveness of the GWC to their rights and requests, and they submitted the Remonstrance of New Netherland to the States General.[50] This document was written by Leiden-educated New Netherland lawyer Adriaen van der Donck, condemning the GWC for mismanagement and demanding full rights as citizens of the province of the Netherlands.[25]

Director-General Stuyvesant

St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, site of Peter Stuyvesant's grave

Director-General
. Some years earlier land ownership policy was liberalized and trading was somewhat deregulated, and many
entrepreneurs in a free market. The population had reached about 15,000, including 500 on Manhattan Island.[25]

During the period of his governorship, the province experienced exponential growth.

Mohawks.[51]
According to historian Eleanor Bruchey:

Peter Stuyvesant was essentially a difficult man thrust into a difficult position. Quick tempered, self-confident, and authoritarian, he was determined...to rule firmly and to repair the fortunes of the company. The company, however, had run the colony solely for trade profits, with scant attention to encouraging immigration and developing local government. Stuyvesant's predecessors...had been dishonest or, at best, inept, so there was no tradition of respect and support for the governorship on which he could build. Furthermore, the colonists were vocal and quick to challenge authority....Throughout his administration there were constant complaints to the company of his tyrannical acts and pressure for more local self-government....His religious intolerance also exacerbated relations with the colonists, most of whom did not share his narrow outlook.[52]

Society

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1630350—    
16402,030+480.0%
16504,301+111.9%
16605,476+27.3%
Source: 1630–1660[4]

Ladino (with Hebrew as a liturgical language). Commercial activity in the harbor could have been transacted simultaneously in any of a number of tongues.[55]

The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of 11 black slaves who worked as farmers, fur traders, and builders. They had a few basic rights and families were usually kept intact. They were admitted to the Dutch Reformed Church and married by its ministers, and their children could be baptized. Slaves could testify in court, sign legal documents, and bring civil actions against whites. Some were permitted to work after hours earning wages equal to those paid to white workers. When the colony fell, the company freed the slaves, establishing early on a nucleus of free blacks.[56]

The

Sephardi Jews in New Amsterdam in 1655, and the Flushing Remonstrance involving Quakers
in 1657. It was located in areas of Canada all the way to Delaware[57][58]

Expansion and incursion

South River and New Sweden

Apart from the second

David Pietersen de Vries.[59]

Peter Minuit, who had obtained a deed for Manhattan from the Lenape (and was soon after dismissed as director), knew that the Dutch would be unable to defend the southern flank of their North American territory and had not signed treaties with or purchased land there from the Lenape. After gaining the support from the Queen of Sweden, Minuit chose the west bank of the Delaware River to establish a colony there in 1638, calling it New Sweden. As expected, the government at New Amsterdam took no action other than to protest. Small settlements centered on Fort Christina sprang up as colony slowly grew, mostly populated by Swedes, Finns, and Dutch.[60]

In 1651, the Dutch dismantled Fort Nassau and constructed

New Amstel" (Nieuw-Amstel).[61] While Stuyvesant was conquering New Sweden, some villages and farms at the Manhattans (Pavonia and Staten Island) were attacked in an incident that is known as the Peach War. These raids are sometimes considered revenge for the murder of a Munsee woman attempting to pluck a peach, though it is possible that they were an attempt to disrupt the attack on New Sweden.[25][62][63]

A new experimental settlement on Delaware Bay was begun in 1663, just before the British takeover in 1664. Franciscus van den Enden had drawn up charter for a utopian society that included equal education of all classes, joint ownership of property, and a democratically elected government.[25] Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy attempted such a settlement near the site of Zwaanendael, but it was largely destroyed in 1664 by the British.[64]

Fresh River and New England

Nicolaes Visscher I's Novi Belgii Novæque Angliæ, a reprint of 1685, which is not a completely accurate map, since the border with New England was adjusted to 50 miles (80 km) west of the Fresh River, and the Lange Eylandt towns west of Oyster Bay, New York on present-day Long Island were under Dutch jurisdiction.
Image of Nieuw Amsterdam made in 1664, the year that it was surrendered to English forces under Richard Nicolls

A few Dutch settlers to New Netherland made their home at

Fort Goede Hoop on the Fresh River. As early as 1637, English settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony began to settle along its banks and on Lange Eylandt, some with permission from the colonial government and others with complete disregard for it. The English colonies grew more rapidly than New Netherland as they were motivated by a desire to establish communities with religious roots, rather than for trade purposes. The wal or rampart at New Amsterdam (Wall Street) was originally built due to fear of an invasion by the English.[59]

There initially was limited contact between New Englanders and New Netherlanders, but the two provinces engaged in direct diplomatic relations with a swelling English population and territorial disputes. The New England Confederation was formed in 1643 as a political and military alliance of the English colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven.[65] Connecticut and New Haven were on land claimed by the United Provinces, but the Dutch were unable to populate or militarily defend their territorial claim and therefore could do nothing but protest the growing flood of English settlers. With the 1650 Treaty of Hartford, Stuyvesant provisionally ceded the Connecticut River region to New England, drawing New Netherland's eastern border 50 Dutch miles (approximately 250 km) west of the Connecticut's mouth on the mainland and just west of Oyster Bay on Long Island. The Dutch West India Company refused to recognize the treaty, but it failed to reach any other agreement with the English, so the Hartford Treaty set the de facto border. Connecticut was mostly assimilated into New England.[59]

Capitulation, restitution, and concession

In March 1664, Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland resolved to annex New Netherland and "bring all his Kingdoms under one form of government, both in church and state, and to install the Anglican government as in old England". The directors of the Dutch West India Company concluded that the religious freedom that they offered in New Netherland would dissuade English colonists from working toward their removal. They wrote to Director-General Peter Stuyvesant:

[W]e are in hopes that as the English at the north (in New Netherland) have removed mostly from old England for the causes aforesaid, they will not give us henceforth so much trouble, but prefer to live free under us at peace with their consciences than to risk getting rid of our authority and then falling again under a government from which they had formerly fled.[66]

On 27 August 1664, four English frigates led by

capture of New Amsterdam, since requests for troops to protect the Dutch colonists from their English neighbors and Native Americans had been ignored. This left New Amsterdam effectively defenseless, but Stuyvesant negotiated good terms from his "too powerful enemies".[69]

Article VIII of these

Mennonite settlement led by Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy near Lewes, Delaware was destroyed.[72] The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo-Dutch War; the Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland, and the status quo was maintained, with the Dutch occupying Suriname and the nutmeg island of Run
.

Within six years, the nations were again at war. The Dutch

States of Zeeland had tried to convince the States of Holland to take on the responsibility for the New Netherland province, but to no avail. In February 1674, the Treaty of Westminster concluded the war and exchanged New Netherland for Suriname. It took until 10 November 1674 for the new English governor Edmund Andros to take over from governor Anthony Colve.[74]

Legacy

The original New Netherland settlements at Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Jersey City have grown into the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the United States

New Netherland grew into the largest

Capital District, the Hudson Valley, North Jersey, western Long Island, New York City, Fairfield County, and ultimately the United States.[17]

Political culture

The concept of tolerance was the mainstay of the province's Dutch mother country. The Dutch Republic was a haven for many religious and intellectual refugees fleeing oppression, as well as home to the world's major ports in the newly developing global economy. Concepts of religious freedom and free-trade (including a stock market) were Netherlands imports.[77] In 1682, visiting Virginian William Byrd commented about New Amsterdam that "they have as many sects of religion there as at Amsterdam".

The Dutch Republic was one of the first

American Declaration of Independence,[79] though there is no concrete evidence that one influenced the other. John Adams went so far as to say that "the origins of the two Republics are so much alike that the history of one seems but a transcript from that of the other."[80]
The Articles of Capitulation (outlining the terms of transfer to the English) in 1664
New York Tri-State traditions.[81]

Many prominent U.S. citizens are

Dutch American directly descended from the Dutch families of New Netherland.[82] The Roosevelt family produced two Presidents and are descended from Claes van Roosevelt, who emigrated around 1650.[83] The Van Buren family of President Martin Van Buren, who even spoke Dutch as his first language, also originated in New Netherland.[10] The Bush family descendants from Flora Sheldon are descendants from the Schuyler family
.

Lore

Prinsenvlag, or "Prince's Flag", featuring the blue, white, and orange of some flags in the region

The blue, white, and orange on the flags of

New York City, Albany and Jersey City are those of the Prinsenvlag ("Prince's Flag"), introduced in the 17th century as the Statenvlag ("States Flag"), the naval flag of the States General of the Netherlands.[citation needed] The flag and seal of Nassau County depicting the arms of the House of Nassau in the middle. The seven arrows in the lion's claw in the Dutch Republic's coat of arms was a precedent for the thirteen arrows in the eagle's claw in the Great Seal of the United States.[84]

Washington Irving's satirical A History of New York and its famous fictional author Diedrich Knickerbocker had a large impact on the popular view of New Netherland's legacy. Irving's romantic vision of a Dutch yeomanry dominated the popular imagination about the colony since its publication in 1809.[85] The tradition of Santa Claus is thought to have developed from a gift-giving celebration of the feast of Saint Nicholas on December 5 each year by the settlers of New Netherland.[25][86] The Dutch Sinterklaas was changed to "Santa Claus", a name first used in the American press in 1773,[87] when Nicholas was used as a symbol of New York's non-British past.[88] However, many of the "traditions" of Santa Claus may have simply been invented by Irving in his 1809 Knickerbocker's History of New York from The Beginning of the World To the End of The Dutch Dynasty.[86]

Language and place names

Further information: List of New Netherland placename etymologies
See also: Yankee
Noort Rivier
was one of the three main rivers in New Netherland.

Dutch continued to be spoken in the region for some time. President

Jersey Dutch was spoken in and around rural Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey until the early 20th century.[90] Mohawk Dutch was spoken around Albany.[91]

Early settlers and their descendants gave many place names that are still in use throughout the region of New Netherland.

Sandy Hook
.

See also

References

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ See John Smith's 1616 map as self-appointed Admiral of New England.

Citations

  1. ^ a b "The New Netherland Dutch". The People of Colonial Albany live here. February 2003. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  2. ^
    ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved March 6, 2009.
  3. ^ a b Wentz, Abel Ross (1955). "New Netherland and New York". A Basic History of Lutheranism in America. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. p. 6.
  4. ^
    ISBN 978-0816025275
    .
  5. Latin
    : Novum Belgium This is the form of the name used in the colonial seal (in the genitive form Novi Belgii).
  6. ^ "P. Geyl, Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse stam · DBNL".
  7. ^ Peter Eisenstadt, ed. Encyclopedia of New York State (Syracuse UP, 2005) p. 1051.
  8. ^ Scheltema, Gajus and Westerhuijs, Heleen. Exploring Historic Dutch New York, 2013.
  9. ^ Oliver A. Rink, Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986, p. 156.
  10. ^ a b c "The Dutch in America, 1609–1664" (The Library of Congress Global Gateway). The Atlantic World (in English and Dutch).
  11. ISBN 978-08065-2739-0
    .
  12. ISBN 0-300-01207-1
    .
  13. ^ Nieuwe Wereldt ofte Beschrijvinghe van West-Indien, uit veelerhande Schriften ende Aen-teekeningen van verscheyden Natien (Leiden, Bonaventure & Abraham Elseviers, 1625)p.84
  14. ^ Nieuwe Wereldt ofte Beschrijvinghe van West-Indien, uit veelerhande Schriften ende Aen-teekeningen van verscheyden Natien (Leiden, Bonaventure & Abraham Elseviers, 1625) p.84
  15. ^ Juan Rodriguez monograph. Ccny.cuny.edu. Retrieved on July 23, 2013.
  16. ^ Honoring Juan Rodriguez, a Settler of New York – NYTimes.com. Cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com. Retrieved on July 23, 2013.
  17. ^
    ISSN 0028-792X
    . Retrieved September 5, 2015.
  18. ^ "Grant of Exclusive Trade to New Netherland by the States-General of the United Netherlands; October 11, 1614". 2008.
  19. ISBN 90-04-12906-5
    .
  20. ^ "A Virtual Tour of New Netherland: Fort Nassau". The New Netherland Institute. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
  21. ^ a b Charter of the Dutch West India Company: 1621, 2008
  22. ^ Lowensteyn. Lowensteyn (November 3, 2006). Retrieved on 2013-07-23.
  23. ^
    ISBN 0-910746-98-2
    .
  24. ^ "Dutch Colonization". Kingston: A national register of historic places travel itinerary.
  25. ^
    ISBN 1-4000-7867-9
    .
  26. ^ Welling, George M. (November 24, 2004). "The United States of America and the Netherlands: The First Dutch Settlers". From Revolution to Reconstruction. Archived from the original on February 6, 2012.
  27. ISBN 978-0-8014-3866-0
    .
  28. ^ Bert van Steeg. "Walen in de Wildernis". De wereld van Peter Stuyvesant (in Dutch). Archived from the original on May 17, 2008.
  29. ^ "1624 In the Unity (Eendracht)". Rootsweb Ancestry.com.
  30. ^ "Slavery in New York". www.slavenorth.com.
  31. ^ "Slavery in New Netherland / De slavernij in Nieuw Nederland" (The Library of Congress Global Gateway). The Atlantic World / De Atlantische Wereld (in English and Dutch).
  32. ISBN 978-0-8232-3039-6
    .
  33. ^ van Rensselaer; Mariana Schulyer (1909). The History of the city of New York. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan.
  34. ^ Paul Gibson Burton (1937). The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record. The New York Genealogical & Biographical Society. p. 6.Cornelis Meyln: "I was obliged to flee for the sake of saving my life, and to sojourn with wife and children at the Menatans till the year 1647."
  35. ^ "Peter Schaghen Letter with transcription". New Netherland Institute. November 7, 1626. Archived from the original on March 24, 2016. Retrieved February 16, 2015.
  36. ^ "Peter Schaghen Letter with transcription. New Netherland Institute (1626-11-07). Retrieved on 2015-02-16". Archived from the original on February 6, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2020.
  37. ISBN 978-1-4165-8997-6
    .
  38. ^ Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898, (1999: xivff)
  39. ^ The International Institute for Social History, Amsterdam calculates Archived September 2, 2017, at the Wayback Machine its value as 60 guilders (1626) = €678.91 (2006), equal to about $1,000 in 2006 and $963 in 2020. However, these are underestimates because of the immediate devaluation of the euro at its introduction.
  40. ^ How much would the $24 paid for Manhattan be worth in today's money? Archived February 9, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. The Straight Dope (July 31, 1992). Retrieved on July 23, 2013.
  41. ISBN 978-0-7627-9636-6.[permanent dead link
    ]
  42. ^ Benchley, Nathaniel. "The $24 Swindle: The Indians who sold Manhattan were bilked, all right, but they didn't mind — the land wasn't theirs anyway." Archived November 28, 2018, at the Wayback Machine American Heritage, Vol. 11, no. 1 (December 1959).
  43. ^ [1] Archived June 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ Map of Long Island Townshttp://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Town/OldBklyn.html
  45. ^ Johan van Hartskamp. "De West-Indische Compagnie En Haar Belangen in Nieuw-Nederland Een Overzicht (1621–1664)". De wereld van Peter Stuyvesant. Archived from the original on December 2, 2005.
  46. ^ "Conditions as Created by their Lords Burgomasters of Amsterdam". World Digital Library. 1656. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
  47. ^ a b Welling, George M. (March 6, 2003). "The United States of America and the Netherlands: Nieuw Nederland — New Netherland". From Revolution to Reconstruction. Archived from the original on February 26, 2010.
  48. ^ "The Patroon System / Het systeem van patroonschappen" (The Library of Congress Global Gateway). The Atlantic World / De Atlantische Wereld. Retrieved March 6, 2009.
  49. ISBN 90-04-12906-5
    . Both in the way it was set up and in the extent of its rights, the council of Twelve Men, as did the two later advisory bodies ...
  50. ISSN 1086-6728. Archived from the original
    on August 16, 2000.
  51. ISBN 1-57181-672-0
    .
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Further reading

  • Archdeacon, Thomas J. New York City 1664–1710. Conquest and Change (1976).
  • Bachman, V.C. Peltries or Plantations. The Economic Policies of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland 1633–1639 (1969).
  • Balmer, Randall H. "The Social Roots of Dutch Pietism in the Middle Colonies," Church History Volume: 53. Issue: 2. 1984. pp 187+ online edition
  • Barnouw, A.J. "The Settlement of New Netherland," in A.C. Flick ed., History of the State of New York (10 vols., New York 1933), 1:215–258.
  • Bruchey, Eleanor. "Stuyvesant, Peter" in John A. Garraty, ed. Encyclopedia of American Biography (2nd ed. 1996) p. 1065 online
  • Burrows, Edward G. and Michael Wallace. Gotham. A History of New York City to 1898 (1999) pp 14–74.
  • Cohen, Ronald D. "The Hartford Treaty of 1650: Anglo-Dutch Cooperation in the Seventeenth Century." New-York Historical Society Quarterly 53#4 (1969): pp 310–332.
  • Condon, Thomas J. New York Beginnings. The Commercial Origins of New Netherland (1968) online.
  • De Jong, Gerald Francis. "Dominie Johannes Megapolensis: Minister to New Netherland." New York Historical Society Quarterly (1968) 52#1 pp 6–47; the Dutch Reformed minister 1642 to 1670.
  • DeJong, Gerald Francis. "The Formative Years of the Dutch Reformed Church on Long Island," Journal of Long Island History (1968) 8#2 pp 1–16. covers 1636 to 1700.
  • Eisenstadt, Peter, ed. Encyclopedia of New York State (Syracuse UP, 2005) pp 1048–1053..
  • Fabend, Firth Haring. 2012. New Netherland in a nutshell: a concise history of the Dutch colony in North America. Albany, N.Y.: New Netherland Institute; 139pp
  • Goodwin, Maud (1921). Dutch and English on the Hudson : a chronicle of colonial New York. Yale University Press.
  • Griffis, William E. The Story of New Netherland. (1909) online
  • Jacobs, Jaap. The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America (2nd ed. Cornell U.P. 2009) 320pp; scholarly history to 1674 online 1st edition Archived May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
  • Jacobs, Jaap, L. H. Roper, eds. The Worlds of the Seventeenth-Century Hudson Valley. An American Region (State University of New York Press, 2014), 277 pp. specialized essays by scholars. online review
  • Kessler, Henry K., and Eugene Rachlis. Peter Stuyvesant and His New York (1959). online
  • Kilpatrick, William Heard. The Dutch schools of New Netherland and colonial New York (1912) online
  • Krizner, L. J., and Lisa Sita. Peter Stuyvesant: New Amsterdam and the Origins of New York (Rosen, 2000) for middle schools.
  • McKinley, Albert E. "The English and Dutch Towns of New Netherland." American Historical Review (1900) 6#1 pp 1–18 in JSTOR
  • McKinley, Albert E. "The Transition from Dutch to English Rule in New York: A Study in Political Imitation." American Historical Review (1901) 6#4 pp: 693–724. in JSTOR
  • Merwick, Donna. Possessing Albany, 1630–1710: The Dutch and English Experiences (1990) excerpt
  • Merwick, Donna. The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch-Amerindian Encounters in New Netherland (2006) 332 pages excerpt
  • Merwick, Donna. Stuyvesant Bound: An Essay on Loss Across Time (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2013) 212 pp excerpt
    • Shaw Romney, Susanah. "Peter Stuyvesant: Premodern Man" Reviews in American History (2014) 42#4 pp 584–589. review of Merwick.
  • Rink, Oliver A. Holland on the Hudson. An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York (Cornell University Press, 1986)
  • Scheltema, Gajus and Westerhuijs, Heleen (eds.), Exploring Historic Dutch New York. Museum of the City of New York/Dover Publications, New York (2011).
    ISBN 978-0-486-48637-6
  • Schmidt, Benjamin, Innocence Abroad: The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570–1670, Cambridge: University Press, 2001.
    ISBN 978-0-521-80408-0
  • Shorto, Russell. The Island at the Center of the World: the epic story of Dutch Manhattan and the forgotten colony that shaped America (New York: Doubleday, 2004).
  • Venema, Janny, Beverwijck: a Dutch village on the American frontier, 1652–1664, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003).
  • Venema, Janny, Kiliaen van Rensselaer (1586–1643): designing a new world. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010).
  • Woodard, Colin, American Nations: A History of the Eleven Rival Regional Cultures of North America, Penguin Random House, 2011/2022
  • Wright, Langdon G. "Local Government and Central Authority in New Netherland." New York Historical Society Quarterly (1973) 37#1 pp 6–29; covers 1624 to 1663.

Primary sources

External links

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