New York City English
| New York City English | |
|---|---|
| Region | New York metropolitan area |
| Ethnicity | Various (see Demographics of New York City) |
Indo-European
| |
Early forms | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | newy1234 |
| IETF | en-u-sd-usny |
New York City English, or Metropolitan New York English,hurry–furry mergers heard in many other American accents.
Today, New York City English is associated particularly with urban New Yorkers of lower and middle
northeastern New Jersey.[4]
History
The origins of many of New York City English's diverse features are probably not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the same major pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature and scientifically documented in the 1890s.phonemic split of the short a vowel, /æ/ (making gas and gap, for example, have different vowels sounds)—New York City's split not identical though to Philadelphia's. Linguist William Labov has pointed out that a similarly structured (though differently pronounced) split is found today even in the southern accents of England; thus, a single common origin of this split may trace back to colonial-era England.[a]
New York City became an urban economic power in the eighteenth century, with the city's financial elites maintaining close ties with the British Empire even after the Revolutionary War. According to Labov, New York City speakers'
prestigious British feature, consistently starting among the upper classes in New York City before spreading to other socioeconomic classes.[6] After World War II, social perceptions reversed and r-preserving (rhotic) pronunciations became the new American prestige standard, rejecting East Coast and British accent features,[7] while postwar migrations transferred rhotic speakers directly to New York City from other regions of the country. The result is that non-rhoticity, which was once a high-status feature and later a city-wide feature, has been diminishing and now, since the mid-twentieth century onward, largely remains only among lower-status New Yorkers.[8]
Today, New York City metropolitan accents are often rhotic or variably rhotic.
Other features of the dialect, such as the dental pronunciations of d and t, and related th-stopping, likely come from contact with foreign languages, particularly Italian and Yiddish, brought into New York City through its huge immigration waves of Europeans during the mid-to-late nineteenth century. Grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, similarly suggest contact with immigrant languages, plus several words common in the city are derived from such foreign languages.[9]
Influence on other dialects
Cincinnati, Ohio and Albany, New York, whose older speakers in particular may still exhibit a short-a split system that linguists suggest is an expanded or generalized variant of the New York City short-a system. Certain New York City dialect features also understandably appear in New York Latino English
.
Recent developments
Though
coil–curl merger (now almost completely extinct), non-rhoticity, and the extremely raised long vowel [ɔ] (as in talk, cough, or law). Researchers proposed that the motivation behind these recessive trends is the stigmatization of the typical New York City accent since the mid-1900s as being associated with a poorer or working-class background, often also corresponding with particular ethnic identities. While earlier projects detected trends of emphasizing New York City accents as part of a process of social identification, recent research attributes the loss of typical accent features to in-group ethnic distancing. In other words, many of the young generations of ethnic groups who formerly were the most representative speakers of the accent are currently avoiding its features to not stand out socially or ethnically.[14]
Pronunciation
The pronunciation of New York City English, most popularly acknowledged by the term New York accent, is readily noticed and stereotyped, garnering considerable attention in American culture.coil–curl merger.[16]
Vocabulary and grammar
These are some words or grammatical constructions used mainly in Greater New York City:
- bodega /boʊˈdeɪgə/: a small neighborhood convenience store; used in recent decades, particularly in New York City though not on Long Island generally; it comes from Spanish, originally meaning "a wine storehouse" via the Puerto Rican Spanish term for "small store; corner store"; by extension, "bodega cats" is the term for the cats that inhabit such establishments.[17] These small stores may also be called delis, which is the short form of delicatessens.
- bubkes /ˈbʌpkəs/: a worthless amount; little or nothing (from Yiddish; probably an abbreviation of kozebubkes, literally, "goat droppings")[18]
- dungarees: an older term for blue jeans[19]
- egg cream: a mixture of cold milk, chocolate or vanilla syrup, and seltzer (carbonated water)[19]
- have a catch: to play a game of catch[19]
- hero: a footlong sandwich or "sub"[19]
- Mischief Night: the night before Halloween
- on line: Metro New Yorkers tend to say they stand on line, whereas most other New York State and American English speakers tend to stand in line.[20]
- stickball: street variants of baseball, suitable for smaller urban areas, in which a fist or stick substitutes for the bat and a rubber ball (a "Spaldeen") is used[19]
- beggar, or small-time street criminal[18]
- s(c)hmuck: an insulting term for an unlikeable man (from Yiddish shmok: "penis")[18]
The word punk tends to be used as a synonym for "weak", "someone unwilling or unable to defend himself" or perhaps "loser", though it appears to descend from an outdated New York African-American English meaning of male receptive participant in anal sex.[21]
Conversational styles
New York City speakers have some unique conversational styles. Linguistics professor Deborah Tannen notes in a New York Times article it has "an emphasis to involve the other person, rather than being considerate. It would be asking questions as a show of interest in the other person, whereas in other parts of [the] country, people don't ask because it might put the person on the spot." Metro New Yorkers "stand closer, talk louder, and leave shorter pauses between exchanges," Tannen said. "I call it 'cooperative overlap'. It's a way of showing interest and enthusiasm, but it's often mistaken for interrupting by people from elsewhere in the country." On the other hand, linguist William Labov demurs, "there's nothing known to linguists about 'normal New York City conversation.'"[22]
Notable speakers
The New York City accent has a strong presence in media; pioneer variationist sociolinguist William Labov describes it as the most recognizable variety of North American English.[2] The following famous people are native New York City–area speakers—including some speakers of other varieties native to the region—that all demonstrate typical features of the New York City accent.
- Bella Abzug[23][24]
- Eric Adams[25]
- Danny Aiello[26][27][28][29]
- Alan Alda[30][31]
- Woody Allen[28][29][32][33]
- Iris Apfel[34]
- Jack Armstrong[35]
- Mel Brooks[28][29][36]
- Sid Caesar[38]
- James Cagney[28][29][39]
- Mariah Carey[40][41]
- George Carlin[42]
- Robert Caro[43]
- Andrew Dice Clay[44][45]
- Michael Cohen[46]
- Howard Cosell[47][48]
- Billy Crystal[49]
- Andrew Cuomo[50]
- Mario Cuomo[51]
- Tony Curtis[52][53][54]
- Larry David[29][55]
- Rodney Dangerfield[29][56]
- Tony Danza[39][57]
- Dead End Kids[58][39]
- Dion DiMucci[59]
- Billy Donovan[60]
- Robert De Niro[28][29][39]
- Alan Dershowitz[61]
- Kevin Dobson[62][63]
- Fran Drescher[29][32][58][39][64]
- Jimmy Durante[32][65]
- Jeffrey Epstein[66]
- Anthony Fauci[67]
- Richard Feynman[43][68]
- Mike Francesa[69]
- Ace Frehley[70]
- John Garfield[71][72]
- Ruth Bader Ginsburg[73]
- Rudy Giuliani[74][75]
- Whoopi Goldberg[29]
- Gilbert Gottfried[76][77]
- Buddy Hackett[78]
- Sean Hannity[79]
- Judd Hirsch[28][29]
- Billy Joel[80]
- Meir Kahane[81]
- Wendy Kaufman[82]
- Harvey Keitel[83]
- Peter King[84]
- Ed Koch[32][65]
- Burt Lancaster[28][29]
- Cyndi Lauper[85][86]
- Spike Lee[64]
- John Leguizamo[87][88][89]
- Vince Lombardi[90]
- Natasha Lyonne[91]
- Bernard Madoff[92]
- Barry Manilow[93]
- Garry Marshall[94][95]
- Penny Marshall[96]
- The Marx Brothers; prominently Groucho Marx[28][29][97]
- Jackie Mason[32][98]
- Walter Matthau[28][29][99][100]
- Debi Mazar[101][102]
- Garry McCarthy[103][104]
- John Mearsheimer[105]
- Al Michaels[106]
- Al Pacino[28][29][110][111][112]
- Joe Paterno[113][114]
- Bernadette Peters[115]
- Rosie Perez[32][33][39][57][116][64]
- Rhea Perlman[117]
- Regis Philbin[118]
- Colin Quinn[119][120]
- George Raft[121][122]
- Charles Rangel[123][124]
- Michael Rapaport[125]
- Paul Reiser[33]
- Leah Remini[126][127]
- Don Rickles[128]
- Thelma Ritter[129]
- Joan Rivers[130][131]
- Phil Rizzuto[132]
- Ray Romano[133]
- Maxie Rosenbloom[134]
- Lynn Samuels[135]
- Bernie Sanders[136][137][138]
- Adam Sandler[139]
- Telly Savalas[142]
- Chuck Schumer[143]
- Vin Scully[144]
- Judge Judy Sheindlin[145]
- Phil Silvers[146]
- Paul Simon[147]
- Al Smith[51][148]
- Phil Spector[149]
- Ronnie Spector[150]
- Art Spiegelman[151]
- Sebastian Stan[152]
- Arnold Stang[153]
- Paul Stanley[154]
- Barbara Stanwyck[155][156]
- Peter Steele[157]
- Howard Stern[158]
- Barbra Streisand[28][29]
- Marisa Tomei[28][29][159][160]
- John Travolta[161][162]
- Donald Trump[163]
- Christopher Walken[29][164]
- Eli Wallach[165]
- Denzel Washington[166][167]
- Barry Wellman[168]
- Mae West[169]
- Lenny Wilkens[170][171]
- Richard D. Wolff[172][173]
- Janet Yellen[174]
Fictional characters
Many fictional characters in popular films and television shows have used New York City English, whether or not the actors portraying them are native speakers of the dialect. Some examples are listed below.
- Travis Bickle[175]
- The Bowery Boys[32][58]
- Archie and Edith Bunker[33][65][176][177][178][64]
- Bugs Bunny[58][179]
- The Honeymooners cast[28][29][176][177][180][181]
- Terry Malloy[182]
- Pokémon[183]
- Mob Wives cast[184][185]
- Rhoda Morgenstern[186][187]
- Linda Richman[58]
- Jerry Seinfeld[177][188][189] and George Costanza[190] from Seinfeld
- The Sopranos cast[176][191][192][193][194][195]
- The Three Stooges[196]
- Mona Lisa Vito from My Cousin Vinny[175]
- Joey Wheeler from Yu-Gi-Oh![197]
Geographic boundaries
The accent is not spoken in the rest of New York State beyond the immediate New York City metropolitan area. Specifically, the upper Hudson Valley mixes New York City and Western New England accent features, while Central and Western New York belong to the same dialect region as Great Lakes cities such as Chicago and Detroit, a dialect region known as the Inland North.[198][199]
New York State
New York City English is confined to a geographically small but densely populated area of New York State including all
five boroughs of New York City as well as many parts of Long Island; the dialect region spans all of Nassau County and some of Suffolk County.[4][200][201][202] Moreover, the English of the Hudson Valley forms a continuum of speakers who gather more features of New York City English the closer they are to the city itself;[203] some of the dialect's features may be heard as far north as the state capital of Albany
.
Connecticut
A small portion of southwestern Connecticut speaks a similar dialect, primarily speakers in Fairfield County and as far as New Haven County.[204]
New Jersey
The
open syllable constraint is used only variably.[206]
Notable speakers
The following is a list of notable lifelong native speakers of the
rhotic
New York City English of northeastern New Jersey:
- Jon Bon Jovi[207]
- Danny DeVito[208]
- James Gandolfini[209][210]
- Ed Harris[211]
- Richard Kind[212]
- William Labov[213]
- Ray Liotta[214][215]
- Joe Pesci[216]
- Patti Stanger[217]
- Zakk Wylde[218]
Comedian Joey Diaz,[219] sportscaster Dick Vitale,[220] and late singer Frank Sinatra[221] are examples of considerably non-rhotic speakers from New Jersey.
See also
- American English regional vocabulary
- Mission brogue
- New Orleans English
- New York Latino English
- North American English regional phonology
Explanatory notes
- ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 173: "In NYC and the Mid-Atlantic region, short-a is split into a tense and lax class. There is reason to believe that the tense class /æh/ descends from the British /ah/ or 'broad-a' class."
Citations
- ^ Morén, Bruce (2000). Distinctiveness, Coercion and Sonority: A Unified Theory of Weight. Routledge. p. 203.
- ^ ISBN 0-521-82122-3.
- ^ Newman, 2014, pp. 1–3.
- ^ a b Newman, 2014, pp. 17–18: "Although small, the [dialect] region is certainly populous. The 2010 US Census gives the population of New York City at 8,175,133. Nassau County, which is entirely within the dialect region, adds 1,339,532. The remaining counties are only partly inside. They include Suffolk (1,493,350), Westchester (949,113), and Rockland (311,687) in New York State and Hudson (905,113) and Bergen (905,116) in New Jersey ... Labov, et al. (2006) found that Newark, in Essex County, also had NYCE features."
- ^ Mencken, H. L. (1919; reprinted 2012). American Language, 4th Edition. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 367
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General and cited references
- Babbitt, Eugene H. (1896). "The English of the lower classes in New York City and vicinity". Dialect Notes. 1: 457–464.
- Becker, Kara & Amy Wing Mei Wong. 2009. The short-a system of New York City English: An update. 'University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics. Volume 15, Issue 2 Article 3. pp: 10–20. http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol15/iss2/3/
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- Becker, Kara & Elizabeth L. Coggshall. 2009. The Sociolinguistics of Ethnicity in New York City, 2009, Language and Linguistic Compass, 3(3): 751–766.4
- Becker, Kara (2009). "/r/ and the construction of place identity on New York City's Lower East Side". Journal of Sociolinguistics. 13 (5): 634–658. .
- Becker, Kara. 2010. Regional Dialect Features on the Lower East Side of New York City: Sociophonetics, Ethnicity, and Identity. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, NYU.
- Bonfiglio, Thomas Paul. 2002. Race and the Rise of Standard American. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 214–225. ISBN 978-3-1101-7189-1.
- Cutler, Cece (1999). "Yorkville Crossing: White teens, hip hop and African American English". Journal of Sociolinguistics. 3 (4): 428–442. .
- Cutler, Cece. 2007. Hip-hop language in sociolinguistics and beyond. Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(5):519–538.
- Cutler, Cece. 2008 Brooklyn Style: hip-hop markers and racial affiliation among European immigrants. International Journal of Bilingualism, 12(1–2), 7–24.
- Gordon, Matthew (2004). Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.). New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110175325.
- Hubell, Allan F. 1972. The Pronunciation of English in New York City. NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
- Kurath, Hans and Raven I. McDavid. 1961. The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
- Labov, William, Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and John Lewis. 1968. A study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City, V. 1: Phonological and Grammatical Analysis. Washington, DC: Office of Education, Bureau of Research/ERIC.
- Labov, William, Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and John Lewis. 1968. A study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City', V. 2: The Use of Language in the Speech Community. Washington, DC: Office of Education, Bureau of Research/ERIC.
- Labov, William (1966). The Social Stratification of English in New York City (PDF) (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 24, 2014.
- Labov, William. 1972a. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Labov, William. 1972b. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Labov, William (1994) Principles of Linguistic Change: Volume 1: Internal Factors Blackwell ISBN 0-631-17914-3
- Labov, William (2001) Principles of Linguistic Change: Volume 2: Social Factors Blackwell ISBN 0-631-17916-X
- Labov, William (2006). The Social Stratification of English in New York City (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521528054.
- Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton-de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-016746-7.
- Labov, William (2007) "Transmission and Diffusion", Language June 2007
- Newman, Michael (2005). "New York Talk" in American Voices Walt Wolfram and Ben Ward (eds.). p. 82–87. Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-2109-2.
- Newman, Michael (2010). "'Focusing, implicational scaling, and the dialect status of New York Latino English". Journal of Sociolinguistics. 14 (2): 207–239. .
- Schneider, E. W., Kortmann, B. (2005), A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multi-Media Reference Tool, Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-017532-0, p. 284
- Slomanson, Peter; Newman, Michael (2004). "Peer Group Identification and Variation in New York Latino English Laterals". English World-Wide. 25 (2): 199–216. S2CID 35393553.
- Thomas, C. K. (1932). "Jewish dialect and New York Dialect". American Speech. 7 (5): 321–6. JSTOR 452953.
- Thomas, C. K. (1942). "Pronunciation in downstate New York". American Speech. 17 (1): 30–41. JSTOR 486854.
- Thomas, C. K. (1947). "The place of New York City in American linguistic geography". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 33 (3): 314–20. .
- Wells, J. C. 1982. Accents of English. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Wolfram, Walt. 1974. Sociolinguistic Aspects of Assimilation: Puerto Rican English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
- Wolfram, Walt & Natalie Schilling Estes (2006) American English 2nd edition Blackwell ISBN 1-4051-1265-4
- Wolfram, Walt & Ward, Ben (2005) American Voices: How Dialects Differ from Coast to Coast Blackwell ISBN 1-4051-2109-2
- Wong, Amy (2007). "Two Vernacular Features in the English of Four American-Born Chinese". University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics. 13 (2): 217–230.
External links
- Varieties of English: New York City phonology. Archived April 19, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. From the University of Arizona's Language Samples Project.
- A paper by Labov on dialect diversity, including information on NY dialect phonology[permanent dead link]
- The New York Latino English Project. The website of the New York Latino English Project, which studies the native English spoken by New York Latinos.
- A site with samples of speech in various dialects, including NYC English
- AM New York's feature on the New York accent
- Video on YouTube. A demonstration of NYC English's raised and tensed /ɔ/, i.e., the THOUGHT vowel, in words like "coffee" and "sausage".
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