This was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language (spelled Nu Tirani in Te Tiriti o Waitangi). In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled "He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni" was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand. It was prepared by Te W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni, the United Tribes of New Zealand, and a copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg.[21][22]
Stewart Island / Rakiura).[26] In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907, this was the accepted norm.[20] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.[27] For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.[27] Similarly the Māori and English names for the whole country are sometimes used together (Aotearoa New Zealand);[28][29] however, this has no official recognition.[30]
The Māori people descend from Polynesians whose ancestors emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia between 3000 and 1000 BCE and then travelled east, reaching the Society Islands c. 1000 CE. After a pause of 200 to 300 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.[31][32][33]
The first people to reach New Zealand were Polynesians in ocean going waka (canoes). Their arrival likely occurred in several waves, approximately between 1280 and 1350 CE. Those Polynesian settlers, isolated in New Zealand, became the Māori of later years. According to an early European synthesized interpretation of various Māori traditional accounts, around 750 CE the heroic explorer, Kupe, had discovered New Zealand and later, around 1350, one great fleet of settlers set out from Hawaiki in eastern Polynesia.[34] However, from the late 20th century, this story has been increasingly relegated to the realm of legend and myth. An alternative view has emerged from fresh archaeological and scientific evidence, which correlates with doubts raised by historians everywhere as to the reliability of interpretations drawn from the oral evidence of indigenous peoples, including from Māori.[35]
Regarding the arrival of these Polynesian settlers, there are no human remains, artefacts or structures which are confidently dated to earlier than the Kaharoa Tephra, a layer of volcanic debris deposited by the Mount Tarawera eruption around 1314 CE.[36] Samples of rat bone, rat-gnawed shells and seed cases have given dates later than the Tarawera eruption except for three of a decade or so earlier.[37]Radiocarbon dating and pollen evidence of widespread forest fires shortly before the eruption might also indicate a pre-eruption human presence.[38][39] Additionally, mitochondrial DNA variability within the Māori populations suggest that Eastern Polynesians first settled the New Zealand archipelago between 1250 and 1300,[25][40][41] Therefore, current opinion is that, whether or not some settlers arrived before 1314, the main settlement period was in the subsequent decades, possibly involving a coordinated mass migration. It is also the broad consensus of historians that the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand was planned and deliberate.[42][43][44][45][46] Over the centuries that followed, the settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. This scenario is also consistent with a much debated questionable third line of oral evidence,[35] traditional genealogies (whakapapa) which point to around 1350 as a probable arrival date for many of the founding canoes (waka) from which many Māori trace their descent.[47][48] Some Māori later migrated to the Chatham Islands where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.[49] A later 1835 invasion by Māori resulted in the massacre and virtual extinction of the Moriori.[50]
Map of the New Zealand coastline as Cook charted it on his first visit in 1769–70. The track of the Endeavour is also shown.
In a hostile 1642 encounter between Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri and Dutch explorer Abel Tasman's crew,[51][52] four of Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.[53] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769, when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[52] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North Americanwhaling, sealing, and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons, and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts, and water.[54] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[55] The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[56] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.[57] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[58]
William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[59] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[61] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[62] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington,[63][64] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[65] With the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[66]
New Zealand was administered as a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until becoming a separate Crown colony, the Colony of New Zealand, on 3 May 1841.[67][68] Armed conflict began between the colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large areas of Māori land were confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.[69]
A meeting of European and Māori residents of Hawke's Bay Province. Engraving, 1863.
The colony gained a representative government in 1852, and the first Parliament met in 1854.[70] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy, which was granted in the mid-1860s).[70] Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.[71][72] Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.[73]
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King
British Parliament could no longer legislate for the country without its consent. The British government's residual legislative powers were later removed by the Constitution Act 1986, and final rights of appeal to British courts were abolished in 2003.[70]
Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the
protectionist economy.[84] New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War,[85] and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.[86] A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.[87] In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.[62] The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi,[88] although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s.[89][90]
New Zealand is long and narrow—over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)[96]—with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline[97] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi).[98] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[99]
New Zealand, together with Australia, is part of a region known as Australasia.[109] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia.[110]Oceania is a wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand, and various island countries in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.[111]
Climate
Main article:
Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of New Zealand
cold snaps can occur outside this season.[118] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[112]
Average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of New Zealand[119]
podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.[127] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.[128]
Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[129] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[130] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.[131]
The giant Haast's eagle died out when Māori hunted its main prey, the moa, to extinction.
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (
Hamilton's Frog, spiders,[136] insects (wētā),[137] and snails.[138] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils.[139] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.[140][141] Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.[142] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.[143] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country, with 13 of the world's 18 penguin species.[144]
Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[133] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas.[145][146][147][148]
prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors, and other key public officials,[154] and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).[155] The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.[155]
The
convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.[157]Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.[158] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[159] The 42nd and current prime minister, since 27 November 2023, is Christopher Luxon.[160]
mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.[150] Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate, and the other is for a party. Based on the 2018 census data, there are 72 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),[163] and the remaining 48 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in Parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.[164] Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour. More parties have been represented in Parliament since the introduction of MMP.[165]
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.
New Zealand Human Rights Commission has asserted that there is strong, consistent evidence that it is a real and ongoing socioeconomic issue.[178] One example of structural inequality in New Zealand can be seen in the criminal justice system. According to the Ministry of Justice, Māori are overrepresented, comprising 45% of New Zealanders convicted of crimes and 53% of those imprisoned, while only being 16.5% of the population.[179][180]
Map of regions (coloured) and territorial authorities (outlined) in New Zealand
The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[181] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[182] The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays[183] and sporting rivalries.[184]
Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.
territorial authorities.[186] The 249 municipalities[186] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[187] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",[186] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters.[188][189] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[189] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[190]
The Realm of New Zealand, one of 15 Commonwealth realms,[191] is the entire area over which the king or queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands, and Niue.[149] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.[192][193] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).[194] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.[195]New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.[196][n 8]
During the period of the New Zealand colony, Britain was responsible for external trade and foreign relations.
treaties, and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand".[199]Māori Battalionhaka
in Egypt, 1941
In 1951, the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[200] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.[201] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,[202] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,[203] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[204][205] Despite the United States's suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[206] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[207] In 2013[update] there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand.[208]
NATO under the Partnership Interoperability Initiative.[221][222][223] According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, New Zealand is the 4th most peaceful country in the world.[224]
Milford Sound / Piopiotahi is one of New Zealand's most famous tourist destinations.[252]
Unemployment peaked just above 10% in 1991 and 1992,
global financial crisis that followed had a major effect on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[254][255] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[256] The lowest unemployment rate recorded using the current methodology was in December 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, at 3.2%.[257] Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. During the September 2021 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 3.2%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 24 was 9.2%.[253][258] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[259] that still continue today.[260] Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[261] In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[262][263] Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation.[264]
Poverty in New Zealand is characterised by growing income inequality; wealth in New Zealand is highly concentrated,[265] with the top 1% of the population owning 16% of the country's wealth, and the richest 5% owning 38%, leaving a stark contrast where half the population, including state beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $24,000.[266] Moreover, child poverty in New Zealand has been identified by the Government as a major societal issue;[267][268] the country has 12.0% of children living in low-income households that had less than 50% of the median equivalised disposable household income as of June 2022[update].[269] Poverty has a disproportionately high effect in ethnic-minority households, with a quarter (23.3%) of Māori children and almost a third (28.6%) of Pacific Islander children living in poverty as of 2020[update].[267]
Trade
New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,
NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).[273] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[274] In July 2023, New Zealand and the European Union entered into the EU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement, which eliminated tariffs on several goods traded between the two regions.[275] This free trade agreement expanded on the pre-existing free trade agreement[276] and saw a reduction in tariffs on meat and dairy[277] in response to feedback from the affected industries.[278]
The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[97]Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.[279] In 2017, international visitor arrivals were expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.[279]
Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.
Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[242] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[242] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities,[280] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[281] In contrast, dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[282] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[283] In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports,[273] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[284] Other exports in 2017–18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%).[273]New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[285] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[286][287]
The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[289][290]
New Zealand's transport network comprises 94,000 kilometres (58,410 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,[291] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.[97] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[292] The railways were privatised in 1993 but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington, which are operated by Auckland One Rail and Transdev Wellington respectively.[293] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[294] The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked by roll-on/roll-off ferries between Wellington and Picton, operated by Interislander (part of KiwiRail) and Bluebridge. Most international visitors arrive via air.[295] New Zealand has four international airports: Auckland, Christchurch, Queenstown and Wellington; however, only Auckland and Christchurch offer non-stop flights to countries other than Australia or Fiji.[296]
The
Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022.[299] As of 2017[update], the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure.[300]
Science and technology
Early indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Māori tohunga accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease.[301]Cook's voyages in the 1700s and Darwin's in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives.[302] The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders including Ernest Rutherford for splitting the atom, William Pickering for rocket science, Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA, Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation, Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery, and Alan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers.[303]
Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) were formed in 1992 from existing government-owned research organisations. Their role is to research and develop new science, knowledge, products and services across the economic, environmental, social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand.[304] The total gross expenditure on research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP rose to 1.37% in 2018, up from 1.23% in 2015. New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R&D spending as a percentage of GDP.[305] New Zealand was ranked 27th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[306]
The New Zealand Space Agency was created by the government in 2016 for space policy, regulation and sector development. Rocket Lab was the notable first commercial rocket launcher in the country.[307]
The 2023 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,993,923, an increase of 6.3% over the 2018 census figure.[3] As of September 2024, the total population has risen to an estimated 5,401,850.[8] New Zealand's population increased at a rate of 1.9% per year in the seven years ended June 2020. In September 2020 Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019, according to population estimates based on the 2018 census.[308][n 9]
New Zealand's population today is concentrated to the north of the country, with around 76.5% of the population living in the North Island and 23.5% in the South Island as of June 2023.[310] During the 20th century, New Zealand's population drifted north. In 1921, the country's median centre of population was located in the Tasman Sea west of Levin in Manawatū-Whanganui; by 2017, it had moved 280 km (170 mi) north to near Kawhia in Waikato.[311]
New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 84.2% of the population living in
most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[312]
The
health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.[319]
Pedestrians on Queen Street in Auckland, an ethnically diverse city
In the 2023 census, 67.8% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 17.8% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (17.3%) and Pacific peoples (8.9%).[n 3][3] The population has become more multicultural and diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[320] However, New Zealand's non-European population is disproportionately concentrated in the North Island and especially in the Auckland region: while Auckland is home to 33% of New Zealand's population, it is home to 62% of the country's Pasifika population and 60% of its Asian population.[3]
While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally[321] and by locals.[322] The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this name. The word today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.[323]
The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early
European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy.[324] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,[325]German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[326][327] Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies on immigration were relaxed, and immigration from Asia was promoted.[327][328] In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[329] In the 2018 census, 27.4% of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2% in the 2013 census. Over half (52.4%) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lives in the Auckland Region.[330] The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's immigrant population, with around a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.[331] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.[332]
Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[333]
Less than 5%
More than 5%
More than 10%
More than 20%
More than 30%
More than 40%
More than 50%
English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 95.4% of the population.
schwa sound (the a in comma and about); the short-e sound (as in dress) has moved towards the short-i sound; and the short-a sound (as in trap) has moved to the short-e sound.[337]
After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged or forced from speaking their own language (
te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces, and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[338] The Native Schools Act 1867 required instruction in English in all schools, and while there was no official policy banning children from speaking Māori, many suffered from physical abuse if they did so.[339][340][341] The Māori language has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[342] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[343] and is spoken by 4.0% of the population.[334][n 10] There are now Māori language-immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[345]Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.[346]
As recorded in the 2018 census,[334]Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 2.0%), Hindi (1.5%), and French (1.2%). New Zealand Sign Language was reported to be understood by 22,986 people (0.5%); it became one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[347]
A Rātana church on a hill near Raetihi. The two-tower construction is characteristic of Rātana buildings.[348]
secular in the world.[349][350] In the 2018 census, 44.7% of respondents identified with one or more religions, including 37% identifying as Christians. Another 48.5% indicated that they had no religion.[n 11][334] Of those who affiliate with a particular Christian denomination, the main responses are Anglicanism (6.7%),[n 12]Roman Catholicism (6.3%), and Presbyterianism (4.7%).[334] The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana denominations (1.2%) are also Christian in origin.[334][348] Immigration and demographic change in recent decades have contributed to the growth of minority religions, such as Hinduism (2.6%), Islam (1.3%), Buddhism (1.1%), and Sikhism (0.9%).[334] The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.[351]
Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority of children attending from the age of 5.[352] There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[353] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[97] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[352] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,[354] in addition to private training establishments.[355] In 2021, in the population aged 25–64; 13% had no formal qualification, 21% had a school qualification, 28% had a tertiary certificate or diploma, and 35% have a bachelor's degree or higher.[356] The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand as the 28th best in the OECD for maths, 13th best for science, and 11th best for reading.[357]
Late 20th-century house-post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures
Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.[358] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[359][360] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[361] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.[362] More recently, American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[363]
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[364] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[365] At the time, New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[366] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[338] In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available, and cities expanded[367] urban culture began to dominate.[368] However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.[369]
New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[370] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[370]
As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised, and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[371] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.[372] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[373] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[374]
Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[375] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[376] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[377] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation.[377] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism.[378] During the 1960s and 1970s, many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[379] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[371][380]
Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[381]Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[382] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[383] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[384][385] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[385]
Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[386] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain, and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[387] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period, literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[388] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[389] Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.[390]
Media and entertainment
Main articles:
Media of New Zealand
Lorde is one of the most internationally successful New Zealand artists.
pavlova (considered a national dessert).[415][411] A hāngī is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven; still used for large groups on special occasions,[416] such as tangihanga.[417]
before a game. The haka is a challenge with vigorous movements and stamping of the feet.
Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.
waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[430]
New Zealand has competitive international teams in
Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920.[431] The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games.[432][433] The All Blacks, the national rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby.[434] They have won the Rugby World Cup three times.[435]
^The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,[7] is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216)=1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.
^The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.
^Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April.[12] Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands, 45 minutes ahead of NZDT.
^A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. All persons born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).[197]
^A provisional estimate initially indicated the milestone was reached six months later in March 2020, before population estimates were rebased from the 2013 census to the 2018 census.[309]
^In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge of te reo Māori. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".[344]
^Religion percentages may not add to 100% as people could claim multiple religions or object to answering the question.
^This is a percentage of total respondents to the census, not a percentage of Christians.
^International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand(PDF) (Report). New Zealand Government. 21 December 2007. p. 89. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015. In addition to the Māori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
^"Treaty of Waitangi". mch.govt.nz. Manatū Taonga Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
^ ab"Population clock". Statistics New Zealand. Archived from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2021. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
^There is no official all-numeric date format for New Zealand, but government recommendations generally follow Australian date and time notation. See The Govt.nz style guide, New Zealand Government, 22 July 2020, archived from the original on 25 July 2021, retrieved 9 July 2021.
from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
^Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas (ed.). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135.
New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. January 2017. Archived
from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
^Jobberns, George (1966). "Kermadec Islands". In McLintock, A. H. (ed.). An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, Te Ara. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. "The Sea Floor". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
. ... defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.
New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. February 1974. Section 1. Archived
from the original on 20 October 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 January 1987. Section 2.1. Archived
from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2018. The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.
^"The electoral cycle". Cabinet Manual. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 2008. Archived from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2009. Archived
from the original on 1 July 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^Curtin, Jennifer; Miller, Raymond (21 July 2015). "Political parties". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 17 June 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. "Provincial Divergencies". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^"Citizenship Act 1977 No 61". Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 December 1977. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. "External Relations". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Archived
from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
^Evans, N. R. (January 1994). "Up from Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies". National Review. Vol. 46, no. 16. pp. 47–51.
^"Reducing child poverty". www.dpmc.govt.nz. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (DPMC). 22 April 2022. Archived from the original on 23 July 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
^"10. Airports". Infrastructure Stocktake: Infrastructure Audit. Ministry of Economic Development. December 2005. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
^Ranford, Jodie. "'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning". Māori News. Retrieved 20 February 2008. Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today 'Pakeha' is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
^Drinnan, John (8 July 2016). "'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 28 August 2016. According to 2015 figures supplied by Maori TV, its two channels broadcast an average of 72 per cent Māori language content – 59 per cent on the main channel and 99 per cent on Te Reo
New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office
. 20 May 2014 [1 October 1998]. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
^"Sport, Fitness and Leisure". New Zealand Official Yearbook. Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2008. Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics.
^Crawford, Scott (January 1999). "Rugby and the Forging of National Identity"(PDF). In Nauright, John (ed.). Sport, Power and Society in New Zealand: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. "ASSH Studies in Sports History" series. Australian Society for Sports History. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2011 – via LA84Foundation.org (and Internet Archiave).
Kennedy, Jeffrey (2007). "Leadership and Culture in New Zealand". In Chhokar, Jagdeep; Brodbeck, Felix; House, Robert (eds.). Culture and Leadership Across the World: The Globe Book of In-depth Studies of 25 Societies.
5,401,850[8] (120th)
$279.183 billion [USD][9] (63rd)
30.0[10]
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