Advertising
Marketing |
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Advertising is the practice and techniques employed to bring attention to a product or service. Advertising aims to put a product or service in the spotlight in hopes of drawing it attention from consumers. It is typically used to promote a specific good or service, but there are wide range of uses, the most common being the commercial advertisement.
Commercial advertisements often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "
In the 19th century,
Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated US$529.43 billion.[4] Advertising's projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on TV, 33.3% on digital, 9% on newspapers, 6.9% on magazines, 5.8% on outdoor and 4.3% on radio.[5] Internationally, the largest ("Big Five") advertising agency groups are Omnicom, WPP, Publicis, Interpublic, and Dentsu.[6]
In Latin, advertere means "to turn towards".[7]
History
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters.[8] Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[9]
In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below[10] is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.[11]
In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve.[12]
18th-19th century: Newspaper Advertising
In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.
In the United States, newspapers grew quickly in the first few decades of the 19th century, in part due to advertising. By 1822, the United States had more newspaper readers than any other country. About half of the content of these newspapers consisted of advertising, usually local advertising, with half of the daily newspapers in the 1810s using the word "advertiser" in their name.[13]
In August 1859, British pharmaceutical firm Beechams created a slogan for Beecham's Pills: "Beechams Pills: Worth a guinea a box", which is considered to be the world's first advertising slogan.[14] The Beechams adverts would appear in newspapers all over the world, helping the company become a global brand.[14][15] The phrase was said to be uttered by a satisfied lady purchaser from St Helens, Lancashire, the founder's home town.[16]
In June 1836, French newspaper
Late 19th century: Modern Advertising
Thomas J. Barratt of London has been called "the father of modern advertising".[18][19][20] Working for the Pears soap company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.[21][22] In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster-girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.[1][23]
Becoming the company's brand manager in 1865, listed as the first of its kind by the
Enhanced advertising revenues was one effect of the Industrial Revolution in Britain.[24] Thanks to the revolution and the consumers it created, by the mid-19th century biscuits and chocolate became products for the masses, and British biscuit manufacturers were among the first to introduce branding to distinguish grocery products.[25][26] One the world's first global brands, Huntley & Palmers biscuits were sold in 172 countries in 1900, and their global reach was reflected in their advertisements.[25]
20th century
As a result of massive industrialization, advertising increased dramatically in the United States. In 1919 it was 2.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the US, and it averaged 2.2 percent of GDP between then and at least 2007, though it may have declined dramatically since the Great Recession.
Industry could not benefit from its increased productivity without a substantial increase in consumer spending. This contributed to the development of mass marketing designed to influence the population's economic behavior on a larger scale.[28] In the 1910s and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed – "sublimated" into the desire to purchase commodities.[29] Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, became associated with the method and is sometimes called the founder of modern advertising and public relations.[30] Bernays claimed that:
[The] general principle, that men are very largely actuated by motives which they conceal from themselves, is as true of mass as of individual psychology. It is evident that the successful propagandist must understand the true motives and not be content to accept the reasons which men give for what they do.[31]
In other words, selling products by appealing to the rational minds of customers (the main method used prior to Bernays) was much less effective than selling products based on the unconscious desires that Bernays felt were the true motivators of human action. "Sex sells" became a controversial issue, with techniques for titillating and enlarging the audience posing a challenge to conventional morality.[32][33]
In the 1920s, under
The tobacco companies became major advertisers in order to sell packaged cigarettes.[37] The tobacco companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive associations with tobacco smoking.[2][3]
Advertising was also used as a vehicle for cultural assimilation, encouraging workers to exchange their traditional habits and community structure in favor of a shared "modern" lifestyle.[38] An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press.[39][40]
At the turn of the 20th century, advertising was one of the few career choices for women. Since women were responsible for most household purchasing done, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "A skin you love to touch".[41]
In the 1920s, psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible".[42] He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer.
Radio from the 1920s
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers, followed by
The rise of mass media communications allowed manufacturers of branded goods to bypass retailers by advertising directly to consumers. This was a major paradigm shift which forced manufacturers to focus on the brand and stimulated the need for superior insights into consumer purchasing, consumption and usage behaviour; their needs, wants and aspirations.[45] The earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a soap opera.[46] Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these advertising spots, as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.[47]
By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing personal relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense.[48] Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of the most enduring campaigns of the 20th century.[49]
Commercial television in the 1950s
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show.[50] The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.[citation needed][51]
Cable television from the 1980s
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly
Internet from the 1990s
With the advent of the
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media since 1925. In 1925, the main advertising media in America were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media; by 2017, the balance between broadcast and online advertising had shifted, with online spending exceeding broadcast.[55] Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower – about 2.4 percent.[56]
The advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years.[when?][clarification needed] In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares.
Domain name registrants (usually those who register and renew domains as an investment) sometimes "park" their domains and allow advertising companies to place ads on their sites in return for per-click payments. These ads are typically driven by pay per click search engines like Google or Yahoo, but ads can sometimes be placed directly on targeted domain names through a domain lease or by making contact with the registrant of a domain name that describes a product. Domain name registrants are generally easy to identify through WHOIS records that are publicly available at registrar websites.[59]
Classification
Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or purpose.
Traditional media
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include
Medium | 2015 | 2017 [ disputed ]
|
---|---|---|
Television advertisement | 37.7% | 34.8% |
Desktop online advertising | 19.9% | 18.2% |
Mobile advertising | 9.2% | 18.4% |
Newspaper | 12.8% | 10.1% |
Magazines | 6.5% | 5.3% |
Outdoor advertising |
6.8% | 6.6% |
Radio advertisement | 6.5% | 5.9% |
Cinema | 0.6% | 0.7% |
- Television
- Television advertising is one of the most expensive types of advertising; networks charge large amounts for commercial industry professionals.[74]
- Radio
- Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.[75]
- Online
- Online advertising is a form of e-mail spam.[76] A newer form of online advertising is Native Ads; they go in a website's news feed and are supposed to improve user experience by being less intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is deceptive.[77]
- Domain names
- Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click web search engines, however, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces a targeted sales lead.[78] Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later known as Applied Semantics), one of Google's early acquisitions.[79]
- Product placements
- Covert advertising is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.[citation needed]
- Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. One form of print advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.[60]: 14
- Outdoor
- tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.[80] Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: target advertising, one-day and long-term campaigns, conventions, sporting events, store openings and similar promotional events, and big advertisements from smaller companies.[80]
- Point-of-sale
- In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (a.k.a. POP – point of purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.[81]
- Novelties
- Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and such is known as novelty advertising. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items, which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers. [citation needed]
- Celebrity endorsements
- Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores' or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.[82] Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and Toyota.[83]
- Aerial
- Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.[citation needed]
New media approaches
A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising, which is data-driven advertising, using large quantities of data, precise measuring tools and precise targeting.[84] Advanced advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad-space to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or broadcast.[85]
Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like
Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising known as "
In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, it is used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'.[citation needed]
As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland,
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons,
Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station.[91]
Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "
Early in its life, The CW aired short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and Toyota.[93][94]
A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on augmented reality technology.[95]
Controversy exists on the effectiveness of
Rise in new media
With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Pop-up,
Niche marketing
Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the
Crowdsourcing
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google,
Globalization
Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[105]
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.[106]
Foreign public messaging
Foreign governments,[
Diversification
In the realm of
New technology
The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from these sets.
To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like
The emerging technology of
Education
In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns.[111]
Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.[citation needed] A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking.[citation needed] A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.[112] Organizations such as the American Advertising Federation establish companies with students to create these campaigns.[citation needed]
Purposes
Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers.[113]
Sales promotions and brand loyalty
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.[114]
Criticisms
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth,
One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable.
A 2021 study found that for more than 80% of brands, advertising had a negative return on investment.[122] Unsolicited ads have been criticized as attention theft.[123]
Regulation
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising
The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-regulation.[124][125][126] Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.[127]
In the UK, most forms of
Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English.[132]
The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later stage of a transaction.[133] In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as they are quoted up-front.[134][135] In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them.[136][137][138]
Theory
Hierarchy-of-effects models
Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to advertising practice.[clarification needed][139]
- The model of Clow and Baack[140] clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through when making a purchase:
- Awareness
- Knowledge
- Liking
- Preference
- Conviction
- Purchase
- Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state.[141]
- Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.[142]
Marketing mix
The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s.[143] It consists of four basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.
In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's.[144] There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication, convenience)
Research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns.
Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement meets its communications goals.[150]
Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement.[151] With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.
Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.[152]
Semiotics
Meanings between consumers and marketers depict
Apple's commercials[when?] used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products.[157]
The semiotics of
There are two types of
Gender effects on comprehension
According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving
More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads and on the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a viewer's mood state.[167] Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don't just Break Stereotypes—They're also Effective" discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first Barbie commercial, where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers and Wojcicki states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy.[168]
Alternatives
Other approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions, microtransactions, and data monetization. Websites and applications are "ad-free" when not using advertisements at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopaedia Wikipedia provides free[169] content by receiving funding from charitable donations.[170]
"Fathers" of advertising
- Late 1700s – Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) – "father of advertising in America"[171]
- Late 1800s – Thomas J. Barratt (1841–1914) of London – called "the father of modern advertising" by T.F.G. Coates[172]
- Early 1900s – J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe, Jr of Philadelphia – "world's best known slogan writer"[171]
- Early 1900s – Albert Lasker (1880–1952) – the "father of modern advertising"; defined advertising as "salesmanship in print, driven by a reason why"[173]
Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice
- N. W. Ayer & Son – probably the first advertising agency to use mass media (i.e. telegraph) in a promotional campaign
- Claude C. Hopkins (1866–1932) – popularised the use of test campaigns, especially coupons in direct mail, to track the efficiency of marketing spend
- Ernest Dichter (1907–1991) – developed the field of motivational research, used extensively in advertising
- E. St. Elmo Lewis (1872–1948) – developed the first hierarchy of effects model (AIDA) used in sales and advertising
- Arthur Nielsen (1897–1980) – founded one of the earliest international advertising agencies and developed ratings for radio & TV
- David Ogilvy (1911–1999) – pioneered the positioning concept and advocated of the use of brand image in advertising
- Charles Coolidge Parlin (1872–1942) – regarded as the pioneer of the use of marketing research in advertising
- Rosser Reeves (1910–1984) – developed the concept of the unique selling proposition (USP) and advocated the use of repetition in advertising
- Al Ries (1926–2022) – advertising executive, author and credited with coining the term "positioning" in the late 1960s
- Daniel Starch (1883–1979) – developed the Starch score method of measuring print media effectiveness (still in use)
- J Walter Thompson– one of the earliest advertising agencies
See also
- Advertisements in schools
- Advertorial
- Annoyance factor
- Bibliography of advertising
- Branded content
- Commercial speech
- Comparative advertising
- Conquesting
- Copywriting
- Demo mode
- Direct-to-consumer advertising
- Family in advertising
- Graphic design
- Gross rating point
- History of Advertising Trust
- Informative advertising
- Integrated marketing communications
- List of advertising awards
- Local advertising
- Market overhang
- Media planning
- Meta-advertising
- Mobile marketing
- Performance-based advertising
- Promotional mix
- Senior media creative
- Shock advertising
- Viral marketing
- World Federation of Advertisers
References
Notes
- ^ a b Jones, Geoffrey (2010). Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global Beauty Industry. Oxford University Press. p. 81.
- ^ a b Donley T. Studlar (2002) Tobacco Control: Comparative Politics in the United States and Canada Archived May 9, 2016, at the Wayback Machine p.55 quotation: "... from the early days advertising has been intimately intertwined with tobacco. The man who is sometimes considered the founder of modern advertising and Madison Avenue, Edward Bernays, created many of the major cigarette campaigns of the 1920s, including having women march down the street demanding the right to smoke."
- ^ a b Donald G. Gifford (2010) Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries Archived May 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, p.15 quotation: "... during the early twentieth century, tobacco manufacturers virtually created the modern advertising and marketing industry as it is known today."
- ^ "Carat Predicts Positive Outlook in 2016 with Global Growth of +4.7%". Carat. September 22, 2015. Archived from the original on October 1, 2015. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
- ^ Vranica, Suzanne; Marshall, Jack (October 20, 2016). "Plummeting Newspaper Ad Revenue Sparks New Wave of Changes". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on March 11, 2017.
- ^ Parekh, Rupal; Patel, Kunur (July 12, 2012). "Not the 'Big Four' Holding Firms in Adland Anymore – Now It's the Big Five". Advertising Age. Archived from the original on February 15, 2015. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
- ^ "Latin Word Study Tool - adverto". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved October 31, 2017.
- ^ Behal, Vikas; Sareen, Sania (2014). "Guerilla marketing: a low cost marketing strategy". International Journal of Management Research and Business Strategy. 3 – via Google Scholar.
- ^ Bhatia (2000). Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism, 62+68
- ^ "Commercial Advertising in China". Archived from the original on October 8, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
- ^ Hong Liu, Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies (2013), p.15.
- ^ "Les Crieries de Paris". Archived from the original on June 8, 2015. Retrieved July 9, 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-19-539243-2.
- ^ a b "Anniversary of the first ad slogan". The Herald. August 5, 2019.
- ^ "When Beecham put St Helens on the map". St Helen's Star. Retrieved November 5, 2023.
- ^ Ratcliffe, Susan (2011). Oxford Treasury of Sayings and Quotations. Oxford University Press. p. 478.
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Further reading
- Arens, William, and Michael Weigold. Contemporary Advertising: And Integrated Marketing Communications (2012)
- Belch, George E., and Michael A. Belch. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective (10th ed. 2014)
- Biocca, Frank. Television and Political Advertising: Volume I: Psychological Processes (Routledge, 2013)
- Chandra, Ambarish, and Ulrich Kaiser. "Targeted advertising in magazine markets and the advent of the internet." Management Science 60.7 (2014) pp: 1829–1843.
- Chen, Yongmin, and Chuan He. "Paid placement: Advertising and search on the internet*." The Economic Journal 121#556 (2011): F309–F328. online Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary Copeland. Negative political advertising: Coming of age (2013)
- McAllister, Matthew P. and Emily West, eds. HardcoverThe Routledge Companion to Advertising and Promotional Culture (2013)
- McFall, Elizabeth Rose Advertising: a cultural economy (2004), cultural and sociological approaches to advertising
- Moriarty, Sandra, and Nancy Mitchell. Advertising & IMC: Principles and Practice (10th ed. 2014)
- Okorie, Nelson. The Principles of Advertising: concepts and trends in advertising (2011)
- Reichert, Tom, and Jacqueline Lambiase, eds. Sex in advertising: Perspectives on the erotic appeal (Routledge, 2014)
- Sheehan, Kim Bartel. Controversies in contemporary advertising (Sage Publications, 2013)
- Vestergaard, Torben and Schrøder, Kim. The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985. ISBN 0-631-12743-7
- Splendora, Anthony. "Discourse", a Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, The Language of Advertising in Language in Society Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec., 1986), pp. 445–449
History
- Brandt, Allan. The Cigarette Century (2009)
- Crawford, Robert. But Wait, There's More!: A History of Australian Advertising, 1900–2000 (2008)
- ISBN 0-07-019846-2
- Fox, Stephen R. The mirror makers: A history of American advertising and its creators (University of Illinois Press, 1984)
- Friedman, Walter A. Birth of a Salesman (Harvard University Press, 2005), In the United States
- Jacobson, Lisa. Raising consumers: Children and the American mass market in the early twentieth century (Columbia University Press, 2013)
- Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Packaging the presidency: A history and criticism of presidential campaign advertising (Oxford University Press, 1996)
- Laird, Pamela Walker. Advertising progress: American business and the rise of consumer marketing (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.)
- Lears, Jackson. Fables of abundance: A cultural history of advertising in America (1995)
- Liguori, Maria Chiara. "North and South: Advertising Prosperity in the Italian Economic Boom Years." Advertising & Society Review (2015) 15#4
- Meyers, Cynthia B. A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of Radio (2014)
- Mazzarella, William. Shoveling smoke: Advertising and globalization in contemporary India (Duke University Press, 2003)
- Moriarty, Sandra, et al. Advertising: Principles and practice (Pearson Australia, 2014), Australian perspectives
- Nevett, Terence R. Advertising in Britain: a history (1982)
- Oram, Hugh. The advertising book: The history of advertising in Ireland (MOL Books, 1986)
- Presbrey, Frank. "The history and development of advertising." Advertising & Society Review (2000) 1#1 online
- Saunders, Thomas J. "Selling under the Swastika: Advertising and Commercial Culture in Nazi Germany." German History (2014): ghu058.
- Short, John Phillip. "Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany." Enterprise and Society (2014): khu013.
- Sivulka, Juliann. Soap, sex, and cigarettes: A cultural history of American advertising (Cengage Learning, 2011)
- Spring, Dawn. "The Globalization of American Advertising and Brand Management: A Brief History of the J. Walter Thompson Company, Proctor and Gamble, and US Foreign Policy." Global Studies Journal (2013). 5#4
- Stephenson, Harry Edward, and Carlton McNaught. The Story of Advertising in Canada: A Chronicle of Fifty Years (Ryerson Press, 1940)
- Tungate, Mark. Adland: a global history of advertising (Kogan Page Publishers, 2007.)
- West, Darrell M. Air Wars: Television Advertising and Social Media in Election Campaigns, 1952–2012 (Sage, 2013)
External links
- Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History at Duke University Archived January 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:
- Ad*Access, over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911–1955, includes World War II propaganda.
- Emergence of Advertising in America, 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1940, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the United States.
- AdViews, vintage television commercials
- ROAD 2.0, 30,000 outdoor advertising images
- Medicine & Madison Avenue, documents advertising of medical and pharmaceutical products
- Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:
- Art & Copy, a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry