Nicholas I of Russia
Nicholas I | |
---|---|
Emperor of Russia | |
Reign | 1 December 1825 – 2 March 1855 |
Coronation | 3 September 1826 |
Predecessor | Alexander I |
Successor | Alexander II |
Born | Gatchina Palace, Gatchina, Russian Empire | 6 July 1796
Died | 2 March 1855 Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire | (aged 58)
Burial | Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg, Russian Empire |
Spouse | |
Russian Orthodox | |
Signature |
Nicholas I
Nicholas's biographer Nicholas V. Riasanovsky said that he displayed determination, singleness of purpose, and an iron will, along with a powerful sense of duty and a dedication to very hard work. He saw himself as a soldier—a junior officer consumed by spit and polish. A handsome man, he was highly nervous and aggressive. Trained as a military engineer, he was a stickler for minute detail. In his public persona, stated Riasanovsky, "Nicholas I came to represent autocracy personified: infinitely majestic, determined and powerful, hard as stone, and relentless as fate."[2]
Nicholas I was instrumental in helping to create an independent Greek state, and resumed the Russian conquest of the Caucasus by seizing Iğdır Province and the remainder of modern-day Armenia and Azerbaijan from Qajar Iran during the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828). He ended the Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) successfully as well. Later on, however, he led Russia into the Crimean War (1853–1856), with disastrous results. Historians emphasize that his micromanagement of the armies hindered his generals, as did his misguided strategy. William C. Fuller notes that historians have frequently concluded that "the reign of Nicholas I was a catastrophic failure in both domestic and foreign policy."[3] On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its geographical zenith, spanning over 20 million square kilometers (7.7 million square miles), but had a desperate need for reform.
Early life and road to power
Nicholas was born at
Five months after Nicholas's birth, his grandmother,
On 13 July 1817, Nicholas married Princess Charlotte of Prussia (1798–1860), who took the name Alexandra Feodorovna when she converted to Orthodoxy. Charlotte's parents were Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Nicholas and Charlotte were third cousins, as they were both great-great-grandchildren of Frederick William I of Prussia.
With two older brothers, it initially seemed unlikely Nicholas would ever become Tsar. However, as Alexander and Constantine both failed to produce legitimate sons, Nicholas first came to attention as being likely to rule one day, or at least that his children may succeed. In 1825, when Tsar Alexander died suddenly of
Emperor and principles
Early reign
Nicholas completely lacked his brother's spiritual and intellectual breadth; he saw his role simply as that of a paternal autocrat ruling his people by whatever means necessary.[7] Nicholas I began his reign on 14 December 1825 (old style),[8] which fell on a Monday; Russian superstition held that Mondays were unlucky days.[9] This particular Monday dawned very cold, with temperatures of −8 degrees Celsius.[9] This was regarded by the Russian people as a bad omen for the coming reign.
The accession of Nicholas I was marred by a demonstration of 3000 young
Nicholas appointed
Local policies
Tsar Nicholas abolished several areas of local autonomy. Bessarabia's autonomy was removed in 1828, Poland's in 1830 and the Jewish Qahal was abolished in 1843. As an exception to this trend, Finland was able to keep its autonomy partly due to Finnish soldiers' loyal participation in crushing the November Uprising in Poland.[11]
Russia's first railway was opened in 1837, a 26 km (16 mi) line between
Nicholas I also did try to do attempted Modernization of Russia but failed due to the Nobility rejecting, Nicholas did personally hated Serfdom and tried to remove it most notably in the Baltics.
In 1833,
by a direct order of Tsar Nicholas after composing a poem that mocked the Tsar, his wife, and his domestic policies. By order of the Tsar, Shevchenko was kept under strict surveillance and prevented from writing or painting.From 1839, Tsar Nicholas also used a former
Nicholas disliked
King of Poland
Nicholas was crowned King of Poland in Warsaw on 12 (24) May 1829, per the Polish Constitution, a document he would not respect thereafter. He is the only Russian monarch ever crowned King of Poland[20]—although not the only one bestowed with the title.
Culture
The official emphasis on
The Slavophiles viewed
In the wake of the Decembrist revolt, the tsar moved to protect the status quo by centralizing the educational system. He wanted to neutralize the threat of foreign ideas and what he ridiculed as "pseudo-knowledge." However, his minister of education,
The Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg grew in importance by its recognition and support of artists. Nicholas I decided to control it personally. He overruled it regarding awarding ranks to artists. He reprimanded and humiliated artists whose works he found distasteful. The result was not better art, but just the reverse, compounded by fear and insecurity among members of the art community.[25]
Despite the repressions of this period, Russians outside official control produced a flowering of literature and the arts. Through the works of
Minister of Finance
Treatment of Jews
In 1851 the Jewish population numbered at 2.4 million with 212,000 of them living in Russian controlled Polish territory.[28] This made them one of the largest inorodtsy minorities in the Russian Empire.
On 26 August 1827 the edict of military conscription ("Ustav rekrutskoi povinnosti") was introduced, which required Jewish boys to serve in the Russian military for 25 years from the age of 18. Before that many of them were forcibly conscripted into Cantonist schools since the age of 12, while being a Cantonist did not count into the time of military service.[29] They were sent far away from their families to serve in the military so they would have difficulties practising Judaism and thus be Russified. The poorer village Jews, Jews without families and unmarried Jews were especially targeted for military service.[29] Between 1827 and 1854 it is estimated that there were 70,000 Jews conscripted. Some of the Jews who were forcibly conscripted into the Russian military were, in the absence of connection to their families or community, compelled to convert to Christianity.
Under Nicholas I, the
Under Nicholas I there were attempts to reform the education of Jews with the object of
Military and foreign policy
Nicolas' aggressive foreign policy involved many expensive wars, having a disastrous effect on the empire's finances.[citation needed] Nicholas lavished attention on his very large army; of a population of 60–70 million people, the army counted one million men. They had outdated equipment and tactics, but the tsar, who dressed like a soldier and surrounded himself with officers, gloried in the victory over Napoleon in 1812 and took enormous pride in its smartness on parade. The cavalry horses, for example, were only trained in parade formations, and did poorly in battle. The glitter and braid masked profound weaknesses that he did not see. He put generals in charge of most of his civilian agencies regardless of their qualifications. An agnostic who won fame in cavalry charges was made supervisor of Church affairs. The army became the vehicle of upward social mobility for noble youths from non-Russian areas, such as Poland, the Baltic, Finland, and Georgia. On the other hand, many miscreants, petty criminals, and undesirables were punished by local officials by being enlisted for life in the Army. The conscription system was highly unpopular with people, as was the practice of forcing peasants to house the soldiers for six months of the year. Curtiss finds that "The pedantry of Nicholas's military system, which stressed unthinking obedience and parade ground evolutions rather than combat training, produced ineffective commanders in time of war." His commanders in the Crimean War were old and incompetent, and indeed so were his muskets as the colonels sold the best equipment and the best food.[32]
For much of Nicholas' reign, Russia was seen as a major military power, with considerable strength. The Crimean War, fought shortly before Nicholas' death, demonstrated to both Russia and the world what few had previously realized: Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite his grand ambitions toward the south and Turkey, Russia had not built railroad network in that direction, and communications were bad. The bureaucracy was unprepared for war being riddled with graft, corruption, and inefficiency. The Navy had few competent officers, the rank and file were poorly trained and most importantly of its vessels were outdated; the army, although very large, was good only for parades, suffered from colonels who pocketed their men's pay, poor morale, and was even more out of touch with the latest technology as developed by Britain and France. By the war's end, Russia's leaders were determined to reform their military and society. As Fuller notes, "Russia had been beaten on the Crimean Peninsula, and the military feared that it would inevitably be beaten again unless steps were taken to surmount its military weakness."[33][34][35]
An intensely militaristic man, Nicholas regarded the Army as the best and greatest institution in Russia and as a model for society, saying:[36]
"Here [in the Army] there is order. ... All things flow logically from one another. No one here commands without first learning to obey. No one rises above anyone else except through a clearly defined system. Everything is subordinated to a single, defined goal and everything has its precise designations. That is why I shall always hold the title of soldier in the highest esteem. I regard human life as service because everybody must serve."
Nicholas was often exasperated by the slow pace of the Russian bureaucracy and had a marked preference for appointing generals and admirals to high government rank because of their perceived efficiency, overlooking or ignoring whether or not they were actually qualified for the role.[37] Of the men who served as Nicholas's ministers, 61% had previously served as a general or an admiral.[37] Nicholas liked to appoint generals who had seen combat, and at least 30 of the men who served as a minister under him had seen action in the wars against France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sweden.[38] This proved to be something of a handicap in the sense that the sort of qualities that could make a man distinguished on the battlefields such as bravery did not necessarily make a man capable of running a ministry. The most notorious case was Prince Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov, a competent brigade commander in the Imperial Army who proved himself out of his depth as a Navy minister.[39] Of the Emperor's ministers, 78% were ethnic Russians, 9.6% were Baltic Germans while the rest were foreigners in Russian service.[40] Of the men who served as ministers under Nicholas, 14 had graduated from university while another 14 had graduated from a lycée or a gymnasium, the rest had all been educated by private tutors.[41]
Europe
In foreign policy, Nicholas I acted as the protector of ruling legitimism and as guardian against revolution. It has often been noted that such policies were linked with the Metternich counter-revolutionary system through the Austrian ambassador Count Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont.[42] Nicholas's offers to suppress revolution on the European continent, trying to follow the pattern set by his eldest brother, Alexander I, earned him the label of "gendarme of Europe".[43]
Immediately on his succession Nicholas began to limit the liberties that existed under the constitutional monarchy in Congress Poland. Nicholas was outraged when he learned of the Belgian revolt against the Dutch in 1830 and ordered the Imperial Russian Army to mobilize. Nicholas then petitioned the Prussian ambassador for Russian troops to be granted transit rights in order to march across Europe and restore Dutch hegemony over Belgium.[44] But at the same time, a cholera epidemic was decimating Russian troops and the revolt in Poland tied down Russian soldiers which might have been deployed against the Belgians.[45] It seems likely that Nicholas's hawkish stance was not a sincere prelude towards invasion of the Low Countries, but rather an attempt to apply pressure on the other European powers. Nicholas made it clear he would only act if Prussia and Britain also participated as he feared that a Russian invasion of Belgium would cause a war with France.[45] Even before the Poles rose up, Nicholas had cancelled his plans for invading Belgium as it became clear that neither Britain nor Prussia would join in while the French openly threatened war if Nicholas should march.[46] In 1815, Nicholas arrived in France, where he stayed with the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, who soon become one of his best friends, with the grand duke being impressed with duke's personal warmth, intelligence, manners and grace.[47] For Nicholas the worst sort of characters were nobility who supported liberalism, and when the duc d'Orleans become the king of the French as Louis Philippe I in the July revolution of 1830, Nicholas took this as a personal betrayal, believing his friend had gone over as he saw it to the dark side of revolution and liberalism.[48] Nicholas hated Louis-Philippe, the self-styled Le roi citoyen ("the Citizen King") as a renegade nobleman and an "usurper," and his foreign policy starting in 1830 was primarily anti-French, based upon reviving the coalition that had existed during the Napoleonic era of Russia, Prussia, Austria and Britain, to isolate France.[49] Nicholas detested Louis-Philippe to the point that he refused to use his name, referring to him merely as "the usurper".[50] Britain was unwilling to join the anti-French coalition, but Nicholas was successful in cementing existing close ties with Austria and Prussia and the three imperial states regularly held joint military reviews during this time.[51] For much of the 1830s, a sort of "cold war" existed between the liberal "western bloc" of France and Britain vs. the reactionary "eastern bloc" of Austria, Prussia and Russia.[52]
After the November Uprising broke out, in 1831 the Polish parliament deposed Nicholas as king of Poland in response to his repeated curtailment of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland and brutally crushed the rebellion. Nicholas then proceeded to abrogate the Polish constitution in virtual entirety and reduced Poland to the status of a province called Vistula Land. Soon after, Nicholas embarked on a policy of repressing Polish culture beginning with suppressing the Polish Catholic Church.[53] In the 1840s, Nicholas reduced 64,000 Polish nobles to commoner status.[54]
In 1848, when a series of revolutions convulsed Europe, Nicholas was at the forefront of reactionism. In 1849, he helped the Habsburgs to suppress the revolution in Hungary, and he also urged Prussia not to adopt a liberal constitution.[55][56]
Ottoman Empire and Persia
While Nicholas was attempting to maintain the status quo in Europe, he followed a somewhat more aggressive policy toward the neighboring empires to the south, the
Nicholas' policy towards the Ottoman Empire was to use the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca which gave Russia a vague right as protector of Orthodox peoples in the Balkans, as a way of placing the Ottoman Empire into the Russian sphere of influence, which was felt to be a more achievable goal than conquering the entire Ottoman Empire.[57] Nicholas actually wanted to preserve the Ottoman Empire as a stable but weak state that would be unable to stand up to Russia, which was felt to serve Russia's interests. Nicholas always thought of Russia as first and foremost a European power and regarded Europe as more important than the Middle East.[59] The Russian Foreign Minister Karl Nesselrode wrote in letter to his ambassador in Constantinople Nikolai Muravyov that the victory of Muhammad Ali of Egypt over Mahmud II would lead to a new dynasty ruling the Ottoman Empire.[59] Nesselrode continued that if the able Muhammad Ali became sultan then it "could, with the elevation of a new personage to the Turkish throne, revive new strength in that declining empire and distract our attention and forces from European affairs, and thus the monarch [Nicholas] is especially concerned to keep the sultan on his tottering throne."[59] At the same time, Nicholas argued that because of the economic importance to Russia of the Turkish straits, through which Russia exports its grain, that Russia had the "right" to intervene in Ottoman affairs.[59] In 1833, Nicholas told the Austrian ambassador Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont that "Oriental affairs are above all a matter for Russia."[60] At the same time that Nicholas claimed the Ottoman Empire was within the Russian sphere of influence, he made it clear that he had no interest in annexing the empire. At another meeting with Ficquelmont in 1833, Nicholas, speaking with the "Greek Project" of Catherine the Great in mind said: "I know everything that has been said of the projects of the Empress Catherine, and Russia has renounced the goal she had set out. I wish to maintain the Turkish empire... It if falls, I do not desire its debris. I need nothing."[61] Ultimately, Nicholas's policies in the Near East proved to be both costly and largely futile.
In 1826–28, Nicholas fought the
Russia fought a successful war against the Ottomans in
Fearing the results of a total Ottoman defeat by Russia, in 1854
In 1853 Mikhail Pogodin, professor of history at Moscow University, wrote a memorandum to Nicholas. Nicholas himself read Pogodin's text and approvingly commented: "That is the whole point."[68] According to historian Orlando Figes, "The memorandum clearly struck a chord with Nicholas, who shared Pogodin’s sense that Russia’s role as the protector of the Orthodox had not been recognized or understood and that Russia was unfairly treated by the West." Pogodin wrote:[69]
France takes Algeria from Turkey, and almost every year England annexes another Indian principality: none of this disturbs the balance of power; but when Russia occupies Moldavia and Wallachia, albeit only temporarily, that disturbs the balance of power. France occupies Rome and stays there several years during peacetime: that is nothing; but Russia only thinks of occupying Constantinople, and the peace of Europe is threatened. The English declare war on the Chinese, who have, it seems, offended them: no one has the right to intervene; but Russia is obliged to ask Europe for permission if it quarrels with its neighbor. England threatens Greece to support the false claims of a miserable Jew and burns its fleet: that is a lawful action; but Russia demands a treaty to protect millions of Christians, and that is deemed to strengthen its position in the East at the expense of the balance of power. We can expect nothing from the West but blind hatred and malice...
— Mikhail Pogodin's memorandum to Nicholas I, 1853[68]
Austria offered the Ottomans diplomatic support, and Prussia remained neutral, thus leaving Russia without any allies on the continent. The European allies landed in
Death
Nicholas died on 2 March 1855, during the Crimean War, at the
Legacy
There have been many damning verdicts on Nicholas' rule and legacy. At the end of his life, one of his most devoted civil servants, Aleksandr Nikitenko, opined, "the main failing of the reign of Nicholas Pavlovich was that it was all a mistake."[73] In 1891
However, from time to time, efforts are made to revive Nicholas's reputation. Historian Barbara Jelavich, on the other hand, points to many failures, including the "catastrophic state of Russian finances", the badly-equipped army, the inadequate transportation system, and a bureaucracy "which was characterized by graft, corruption, and inefficiency".[75]
As a traveler in Spain, Italy and Russia, the Frenchman Marquis de Custine wrote in his widely-read book La Russie en 1839 (English translation: Empire of the Czar: A Journey Through Eternal Russia) that, inside, Nicholas was a good person, and behaved as he did only because he believed he had to: "If the Emperor has no more of mercy in his heart than he reveals in his policies, then I pity Russia; if, on the other hand, his true sentiments are really superior to his acts, then I pity the Emperor."[77]
Nicholas figures in an
Honours
Styles of Nicholas I of Russia | |
---|---|
His Imperial Majesty | |
Spoken style | Your Imperial Majesty |
- Russian Empire:[79]
- Knight of St. Andrew, 6 July 1797
- Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 6 July 1797
- Kingdom of Prussia:[80]
- Knight of the Black Eagle, 31 January 1809[81]
- Grand Cross of the Red Eagle, 31 January 1809
- Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, 4 September 1812[82]
- Spain: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 13 April 1817[83]
- Knight of St. Hubert, 1823[84]
- Kingdom of France: Knight of the Holy Spirit, 1824[85]
- Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 24 January 1826[80]
- Sardinia: Knight of the Annunciation, 15 April 1826[86]
- Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 11 May 1826[87]
- Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1826[88]
- Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 3 November 1826[89]
- Württemberg:[90]
- Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1826
- Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order, 6 October 1826
- Two Sicilies:[80]
- United Kingdom: Knight of the Garter, 16 March 1827[91]
- Baden:[92]
- Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1827
- Grand Cross of the Military Karl-Friedrich Merit Order, 1827
- Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1827
- Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 11 April 1830[93]
- Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1836[94]
- Ascanian duchies: Grand Cross of Albert the Bear, 12 June 1837[95]
- Oldenburg: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown, 17 January 1839[96]
- Kingdom of Hanover:[97]
- Grand Cross of the Golden Lion, 4 May 1844[98]
- Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, 1847[99]
- Kingdom of Portugal: Grand Cross of the Sash of the Three Orders, 31 May 1850[100]
Issue
Nicholas I had seven legitimate children with his wife, Alexandra Feodorovna.[101]
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Emperor Alexander II | 29 April 1818 | 13 March 1881 | married 1841, Princess Marie of Hesse ; had issue
|
Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna
|
18 August 1819 | 21 February 1876 | married 1839, Maximilian de Beauharnais, 3rd Duke of Leuchtenberg; had issue |
Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna
|
11 September 1822 | 30 October 1892 | married 1846, Charles, King of Württemberg ; had no issue
|
Grand Duchess Alexandra Nikolaevna | 24 June 1825 | 10 August 1844 | married 1844, Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel ; had issue (died in infancy)
|
Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich | 21 September 1827 | 25 January 1892 | married 1848, Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg ; had issue
|
Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich | 8 August 1831 | 25 April 1891 | married 1856, Duchess Alexandra Petrovna of Oldenburg ; had issue
|
Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich | 25 October 1832 | 18 December 1909 | married 1857, Princess Cecilie of Baden ; had issue
|
Many sources state that Nicholas did not have an extramarital affair until after 25 years of marriage, in 1842, when the Empress's doctors prohibited her from having sexual intercourse, due to her poor health and recurring heart attacks.[citation needed] Many facts dispute this claim. Nicholas fathered three known children with mistresses prior to 1842, including one with his most famous and well documented mistress, Varvara Nelidova.[citation needed]
With Anna-Maria Charlota de Rutenskiold (1791–1856)[citation needed]
- Joséphine or Youzia Koberwein(12 May 1825 – 23 February 1893)
With Varvara Yakovleva (1803–1831)[citation needed]
- Olga Carlovna Albrecht (10 July 1828 – 20 January 1898)
With Varvara Nelidova (d.1897)[citation needed]
- Alexis Pashkine (17 April 1831 – 20 June 1863)
Ancestry
See also
- History of Russia
- Imperial Russia
- La Russie en 1839
- The Third Section
- Tsars of Russia family tree
Notes
- ^ Russian: Николай I Павлович, tr. Nikolay I Pavlovich, IPA: [nʲɪkɐˈlaj ˈpʲervɨj ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ]
- ISBN 978-0-06-010908-0p.164
- ^ Nicholas Riasanovsky, Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855 (1959). p. 3.
- ^ William C. Fuller, Jr., Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (1998) p. 243.
- )
- ^ "An Official Statement from the Chancellery of the Head of the Russian Imperial House, H.I.H. the Grand Duchess Maria of Russia, on the activities of organizations which falsely refer to themselves as the "Order of Malta"". Archived from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 11 September 2020 – via orderstjohn.org.
mperors Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander III, and Nicholas II were all Bailiffs Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Order of Malta.
{{cite web}}
: External link in
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- ^ Nicholas Riasanovsky, Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855 (1959) p. 19
- ^ W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs (The Dial Press: New York, 1981) p. 411.
- ^ Edward Crankshaw, The Shadow of the Winter Palace (Viking Press: New York, 1976) p. 13.
- ^ a b W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs, p. 409.
- ^ Montefiore, p. 493
- ^ Lifgardets 3 Finska Skarpskyttebataljon 1812–1905 ett minnesblad. 1905 Helsinki by Söderström & Co
- ^ Henry Reichman, Railwaymen and Revolution: Russia, 1905 p. 16
- ^ Nicholas Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (4th edition 1984) pp. 323–24
- ^ W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs, p. 428.
- ^ W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs, p. 490.
- ^ Charles Dickens, "The true story of the nuns of Minsk", Household Words, Issue No. 216. Volume IX, pp. 290–295.
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime, p. 179
- ^ Geroid Tanquary Robinson, Rural Russia under the Old Régime: A History of the Landlord-Peasant World, p. 37
- ^ Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire, p. 155
- .
- ^ Hugh Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire: 1801–1917 (1967) p. 277
- ^ Stephen Woodburn, "Reaction Reconsidered: Education and the State in Russia, 1825–1848," Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Selected Papers (2000), pp. 423–431
- ^ Rebecca Friedman, Masculinity, Autocracy and the Russian University, 1804–1863 (2005)
- ^ Rebecca Friedman, "Masculinity, the Body, and Coming of Age in the Nineteenth-Century Russian Cadet Corps," Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth (2012) 5 #2 pp. 219–238 online
- ^ Etta L. Perkins, "Nicholas I and the Academy of Fine Arts." Russian History 18 #1 (1991): 5–63.
- ^ Orlando Figes, Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (2002).
- ^ Helmut de Terra, Humboldt: The Life and Times of Alexander von Humboldt. (1955) pp. 268, 283, 306–07.
- ^ Gartner, Lloyd P. (1978). History of the Jews in Modern Times. Tel-Aviv University: Oxford University Press. p. 164.
- ^ a b Gartner, Lloyd P. (1979). History of Jews in Modern Times. Tel-Aviv University: Oxford University Press. p. 168.
- ^ Gartner, Lloyd P. (1978). History of Jews in Modern Times. Tel-Aviv University: Oxford University press. p. 171.
- ^ Gartner, Lloyd P. (1978). History of Jews in Modern Times. Tel-Aviv University: Oxford University Press. p. 170.
- JSTOR 1848945.
- ISBN 9781439105771.
- ^ Barbara Jelavich, St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (1974) p. 119
- ^ William C. Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (1998) pp. 252–59
- ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce "The Ministers of Nicholas I: A Brief Inquiry into Their Backgrounds and Service Careers" pp. 308–323 from The Russian Review, Volume 34, Issue #3, July 1975 p. 312.
- ^ a b Lincoln, W. Bruce "The Ministers of Nicholas I: A Brief Inquiry into Their Backgrounds and Service Careers" pp. 308–323 from The Russian Review, Volume 34, Issue #3, July 1975 p. 313.
- ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce "The Ministers of Nicholas I: A Brief Inquiry into Their Backgrounds and Service Careers" pp. 308–323 from The Russian Review, Volume 34, Issue #3, July 1975 pp. 313–314.
- ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce "The Ministers of Nicholas I: A Brief Inquiry into Their Backgrounds and Service Careers" pp. 308–323 from The Russian Review, Volume 34, Issue #3, July 1975 pp. 315–316.
- ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce "The Ministers of Nicholas I: A Brief Inquiry into Their Backgrounds and Service Careers" pp. 308–323 from The Russian Review, Volume 34, Issue #3, July 1975 p. 314.
- ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce "The Ministers of Nicholas I: A Brief Inquiry into Their Backgrounds and Service Careers" pp. 308–323 from The Russian Review, Volume 34, Issue #3, July 1975 pp. 314–315.
- ISBN 978-0-307-71921-8
- ^ Hosking (1997), p. 32
- ^ Rendall, Matthew "Defensive Realism and the Concert of Europe" pp. 523–540 from Review of International Studies, Volume 32, Issue #3 July 2006 p. 534.
- ^ a b Rendall, Matthew "Defensive Realism and the Concert of Europe" pages 523–540 from Review of International Studies, Volume 32, Issue # 3 July 2006 p. 535.
- ^ Rendall, Matthew "Defensive Realism and the Concert of Europe" pp. 523–540 from Review of International Studies, Volume 32, Issue #3 July 2006 pp. 535–536.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959 page 255.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959 page 256.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959 pages 256–257.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959 page 257.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959 pages 255–256
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959 pages 255–256.
- ^ An introduction to Russian history
- ISBN 9780521280389. Retrieved 7 July 2018 – via Google Books.
- ^ W. B. Lincoln, "Russia and the European Revolutions of 1848" History Today (Jan 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp 53–59 online.
- ^ Ian W. Roberts, Nicholas I and the Russian Intervention in Hungary (1991).
- ^ a b c Rendall, Matthew "Restraint or Self-Restraint of Russia: Nicholas I, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and the Vienna System, 1832–1841" pp. 37–63 from The International History Review, Volume 24, Issue #1, March 2002 p. 38.
- ^ Rendall, Matthew "Restraint or Self-Restraint of Russia: Nicholas I, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and the Vienna System, 1832–1841" pp. 37–63 from The International History Review, Volume 24, Issue #1, March 2002 p. 47.
- ^ a b c d Rendall, Matthew "Restraint or Self-Restraint of Russia: Nicholas I, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and the Vienna System, 1832–1841" pp. 37–63 from The International History Review, Volume 24, Issue #1, March 2002 p. 48.
- ^ Rendall, Matthew "Restraint or Self-Restraint of Russia: Nicholas I, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and the Vienna System, 1832–1841" pp. 37–63 from The International History Review, Volume 24, Issue #1, March 2002 pp. 48–49.
- ^ Rendall, Matthew "Restraint or Self-Restraint of Russia: Nicholas I, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and the Vienna System, 1832–1841" pp. 37–63 from The International History Review, Volume 24, Issue #1, March 2002 p. 50.
- ISBN 1598849484
- ISBN 978-0-93327-395-5.
- ISBN 978-1317884033
- ^ Edward Crankshaw, The Shadow of the Winter Palace, p. 133.
- ^ Edward Crankshaw, The Shadow of the Winter Palace, pp. 135–136
- ^ Edvard Radzinsky, Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar, p. 94.
- ^ a b "The Long History of Russian Whataboutism". Slate. 21 March 2014.
- ISBN 9781429997249.
- ^ a b W. Bruce Lincoln, The Romanovs, p. 425.
- ISBN 0-19-913418-9.
- ^ Yevgeny Anismov, Rulers of Russia, Golden Lion Press, St. Petersburg Russia (2012).
- ISBN 9780140046229.
- ^ See Tolstoy's story Николай Палкин (Nicholas the Stick), first published in 1891. – "— А ужъ палками — недѣли не проходило, чтобы не забивали на смерть человѣка или двухъ изъ полка. Нынче ужъ и не знаютъ, что такое палки, а тогда это словечко со рта не сходило. Палки, палки!.. У насъ и солдаты Николая Палкинымъ прозвали. Николай Павлычъ, а они говорятъ Николай Палкинъ. Такъ и пошло ему прозвище."
- ISBN 9780253350503.
- ^ Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). The Russian Empire: 1801–1917. p. 278.
- ISBN 978-0-691-05187-1.
- ^
Haywood, Richard Mowbray (1978). "The 'Ruler Legend': Tsar Nicholas I and the Route of the St. Petersburg-Moscow Railway, 1842–1843". Slavic Review. 37 (4): 640–650. JSTOR 2496130.
- ^ Almanach de la cour: pour l'année ... 1817. l'Académie Imp. des Sciences. 1817. pp. 61, 76.
- ^ a b c Johann Heinrich Friedrich Berlien (1846). Der Elephanten-Orden und seine Ritter: eine historische Abhandlung über die ersten Spuren dieses Ordens und dessen fernere Entwicklung bis zu seiner gegenwärtigen Gestalt, und nächstdem ein Material zur Personalhistorie, nach den Quellen des Königlichen Geheimen-Staatsarchivs und des Königlichen Ordenskapitelsarchivs zu Kopenhagen. Gedruckt in der Berlingschen Officin. pp. 160-161.
- ^ Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm III. ernannte Ritter" p. 16
- ISBN 91-630-6744-7.)
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- ^ Bayern (1852). Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1852. Landesamt. p. 7.
- ^ Teulet, Alexandre (1863). "Liste chronologique des chevaliers de l'ordre du Saint-Esprit depuis son origine jusqu'à son extinction (1578–1830)" [Chronological list of knights of the Order of the Holy Spirit from its origin to its extinction (1578–1830)]. Annuaire-bulletin de la Société de l'Histoire de France (in French) (2): 122. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
- ^ Luigi Cibrario (1869). Notizia storica del nobilissimo ordine supremo della santissima Annunziata. Sunto degli statuti, catalogo dei cavalieri. Eredi Botta. p. 104.
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- ^ "A Szent István Rend tagjai" Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ Württemberg (1854). Königlich-Württembergisches Hof- und Staats-Handbuch: 1854. Guttenberg. pp. 32, 58.
- ^ Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 53
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1853), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 30, 36, 45
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- ^ Anhalt-Köthen (1851). Staats- und Adreß-Handbuch für die Herzogthümer Anhalt-Dessau und Anhalt-Köthen: 1851. Katz. p. 10.
- ^ Staat Oldenburg (1854). Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Großherzogtums Oldenburg: für ... 1854. Schulze. p. 27.
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch für das Königreich Hannover. Berenberg. 1853. p. 32, 56.
- ^ Hessen-Kassel (1853). Kurfürstlich Hessisches Hof- und Staatshandbuch: 1853. Waisenhaus. p. 11.
- ^ "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden", Adreß-Handbuch des Herzogthums Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (in German), Coburg, Gotha: Meusel, 1854, p. 29, retrieved 12 March 2020
- ^ Bragança, Jose Vicente de; Estrela, Paulo Jorge (2017). "Troca de Decorações entre os Reis de Portugal e os Imperadores da Rússia" [Exchange of Decorations between the Kings of Portugal and the Emperors of Russia]. Pro Phalaris (in Portuguese). 16: 9. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore, p. 475
References
- The first draft of this article was taken with little editing from the Library of Congress Federal Research Division's Country Studies series. As their home page at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html says, "Information contained in the Country Studies On-Line is not copyrighted and thus is available for free and unrestricted use by researchers. As a courtesy, however, appropriate credit should be given to the series." Please leave this statement intact so that credit can be given.
- This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Russia: A Country Study. Federal Research Division.
Further reading
- Bolsover, George H. "Nicholas I and the Partition of Turkey." Slavonic and East European Review (1948): 115–145 online.
- Cannady, Sean, and Paul Kubicek. "Nationalism and legitimation for authoritarianism: A comparison of Nicholas I and Vladimir Putin." Journal of Eurasian Studies 5.1 (2014): 1–9 online.
- Crisp, Olga. "The state peasants under Nicholas I." Slavonic and East European Review 37.89 (1959): 387–412 online.
- Curtiss, John Shelton. "The Army of Nicholas I: Its Role and Character." American Historical Review 63.4 (1958): 880–889 online.
- Hamlin, Cyrus. "The Political Duel Between Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, and Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the Great English Ambassador." Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society Vol. 9. (1893) online.
- Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia: People and Empire, 1552–1917, (Harvard University Press, 1997)
- Kagan, Frederick W. The military reforms of Nicholas I (Palgrave Macmillan US, 1999).
- Kutscheroff, Samuel. "Administration of Justice under Nicholas I of Russia." American Slavic and East European Review (1948): 125–138. in JSTOR
- Lincoln, W. Bruce. "Nicholas I: Russia's Last Absolute Monarch," History Today (1971) 21 #2 pp. 79–88.
- Lincoln, W. Bruce. Nicholas I: Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (1989) online
- Monas, Sidney. The Third Section: police and society in Russia under Nicholas I (Harvard University Press, 1961)
- Presni͡akov, A. E. Emperor Nicholas I of Russia: the apogee of autocracy, 1825/1855 (1974) online
- Pintner, Walter McKenzie. Russian economic policy under Nicholas I (1967) online
- Rendall, Matthew. "Restraint or Self-Restraint of Russia: Nicholas I, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and the Vienna System, 1832–1841." International History Review 24.1 (2002): 37–63.
- Rebecchini, Damiano. (2010). "An influential collector: Tsar Nicholas I of Russia." Journal of the History of Collections. V. 22, Issue 1, (May): 45–67.
- Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. "'Nationality' in the State Ideology during the Reign of Nicholas I." Russian Review (1960): 38–46 online.
- Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855 (1967) online
- Roberts, Ian W. Nicholas I and the Russian intervention in Hungary (Springer, 1991).
- Stanislawski, Michael. Tsar Nicholas I and the Jews : the transformation of Jewish society in Russia, 1825–1855 (1983) online
External links
- Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.).
- Romanovs. Romanovs. The seventh film. Nicholas I; Alexander II on YouTube– Historical reconstruction "The Romanovs". StarMedia. Babich-Design(Russia, 2013)