Niels Bohr
Niels Bohr | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Born | Niels Henrik David Bohr 7 October 1885 Copenhagen, Denmark | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Died | 18 November 1962 (aged 77) Copenhagen, Denmark | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Resting place | Assistens Cemetery | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alma mater | University of Copenhagen | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Known for |
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Spouse |
Margrethe Nørlund (m. 1912) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Children | 6; including Aage and Ernest | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Awards | Nobel Prize in Physics (1922)
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Scientific career | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Fields | I. H. Usmani | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other notable students | Lev Landau | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Signature | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish:
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy.
Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a new zirconium-like element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic element bohrium was named after him.
During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from
Early life
Niels Henrik David Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 7 October 1885, the second of three children of Christian Bohr,[1][2] a professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen, and his wife Ellen née Adler, who came from a wealthy Jewish banking family.[3] He had an elder sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald.[1] Jenny became a teacher,[2] while Harald became a mathematician and footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Niels was a passionate footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub (Academic Football Club), with Niels as goalkeeper.[4]
Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven.
In 1905 a gold medal competition was sponsored by the
Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn a master's degree, which he earned for mathematics in April 1909. Niels took another nine months to earn his on the electron theory of metals, a topic assigned by his supervisor, Christiansen. Bohr subsequently elaborated his master's thesis into his much-larger Doctor of Philosophy thesis. He surveyed the literature on the subject, settling on a model postulated by Paul Drude and elaborated by Hendrik Lorentz, in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas. Bohr extended Lorentz's model, but was still unable to account for phenomena like the Hall effect, and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals. The thesis was accepted in April 1911,[11] and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May. Harald had received his doctorate the previous year.[12] Bohr's thesis was groundbreaking, but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish, a Copenhagen University requirement at the time. In 1921, the Dutch physicist Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen would independently derive a theorem in Bohr's thesis that is today known as the Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem.[13]
In 1910, Bohr met
Physics
Bohr model
In September 1911, Bohr, supported by a fellowship from the
Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding, and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon. On his return, he became a
Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was.[35] Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point,[36][37] he advanced the theory of electrons travelling in orbits of quantized "stationary states" around the atom's nucleus in order to stabilize the atom, but it wasn't until his 1921 paper that he showed that the chemical properties of each element were largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms.[38][39][40][41] He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting a quantum of discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as the old quantum theory.[42]
In 1885,
where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light and RH is the Rydberg constant.[43] Balmer's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines, but for thirty years, no one could explain why it worked. In the first paper of his trilogy, Bohr was able to derive it from his model:
where me is the electron's mass, e is its charge, h is
The model's first hurdle was the
Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students. He decided to return to Manchester, where Rutherford had offered him a job as a
Institute of Physics
In April 1917, Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics. He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation, and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors, many of them Jewish. Legislation establishing the institute was passed in November 1918. Now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, it opened on 3 March 1921, with Bohr as its director. His family moved into an apartment on the first floor.[51][52] Bohr's institute served as a focal point for researchers into quantum mechanics and related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s, when most of the world's best-known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company. Early arrivals included Hans Kramers from the Netherlands, Oskar Klein from Sweden, George de Hevesy from Hungary, Wojciech Rubinowicz from Poland, and Svein Rosseland from Norway. Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague.[53][54] Klein and Rosseland produced the institute's first publication even before it opened.[52]
The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen and ionized single-electron helium which impressed Einstein[55][56] but could not explain more complex elements. By 1919, Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus and developed heuristics to describe them. The rare-earth elements posed a particular classification problem for chemists because they were so chemically similar. An important development came in 1924 with Wolfgang Pauli's discovery of the Pauli exclusion principle, which put Bohr's models on a firm theoretical footing. Bohr was then able to declare that the as-yet-undiscovered element 72 was not a rare-earth element but an element with chemical properties similar to those of zirconium. (Elements had been predicted and discovered since 1871 by chemical properties[57]), and Bohr was immediately challenged by the French chemist Georges Urbain, who claimed to have discovered a rare-earth element 72, which he called "celtium." At the Institute in Copenhagen, Dirk Coster and George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong. Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process. They went through samples from Copenhagen's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium-like element and soon found it. The element, which they named hafnium (hafnia being the Latin name for Copenhagen), turned out to be more common than gold.[58][59]
In 1922, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them."[60] The award thus recognized both the trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics. For his Nobel lecture, Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the atom, including the correspondence principle, which he had formulated. This states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theory reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers.[61]
The discovery of
Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using "virtual oscillators" at the absorption and emission frequencies, rather than the (different) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits, led Max Born, Werner Heisenberg and Kramers to explore different mathematical models. They led to the development of matrix mechanics, the first form of modern quantum mechanics. The BKS theory also generated discussion of, and renewed attention to, difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory.[64] The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction, but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted by Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger.[65] In light of these results, Bohr informed Darwin that "there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible".[66]
Quantum mechanics
The introduction of spin by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit in November 1925 was a milestone. The next month, Bohr travelled to Leiden to attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate. When his train stopped in Hamburg, he was met by Wolfgang Pauli and Otto Stern, who asked for his opinion of the spin theory. Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields. When he arrived in Leiden, Paul Ehrenfest and Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem using relativity. Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper. Thus, when he met Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan in Göttingen on the way back, he had become, in his own words, "a prophet of the electron magnet gospel".[67]
Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924, then returned to Göttingen in June 1925, shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen, Born realised that they could best be expressed using matrices. This work attracted the attention of the British physicist Paul Dirac,[68] who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926. Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger also visited in 1926. His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr, who believed it contributed "so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics".[69]
When Kramers left the institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at the
Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles and, in 1927, experiments confirmed the
In February 1927, Heisenberg developed the first version of the
In 1914 Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries, bequeathed his mansion (the Carlsberg Honorary Residence, currently known as Carlsberg Academy) to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts, as an honorary residence (Danish: Æresbolig). Harald Høffding had been the first occupant, and upon his death in July 1931, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy. He and his family moved there in 1932.[78] He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939.[79]
By 1929 the phenomenon of
The discovery of
Philosophy
Heisenberg said of Bohr that he was "primarily a philosopher, not a physicist".
There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science. David Favrholdt argued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work, taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value,[91] while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure.[92][87]
Quantum physics
There has been much subsequent debate and discussion about Bohr's views and philosophy of quantum mechanics.
Bohr has often been quoted saying that there is "no quantum world" but only an "abstract quantum physical description". This was not said by Bohr, but rather by Aage Petersen attempting to summarize Bohr's philosophy in a reminiscence after his death. N. David Mermin recalled Victor Weisskopf declaring that Bohr wouldn't have said anything of the sort and exclaiming, "Shame on Aage Petersen for putting those ridiculous words in Bohr's mouth!"[95]
Numerous scholars have argued that the philosophy of Immanuel Kant had a strong influence on Bohr. Like Kant, Bohr thought distinguishing between the subject's experience and the object was an important condition for attaining knowledge. This can only be done through the use of causal and spatial-temporal concepts to describe the subject's experience.[94] Thus, according to Jan Faye, Bohr thought that it is because of "classical" concepts like "space", "position", "time," "causation", and "momentum" that one can talk about objects and their objective existence. Bohr held that basic concepts like "time" are built in to our ordinary language and that the concepts of classical physics are merely a refinement of them.[94] Therefore, for Bohr, classical concepts need to be used to describe experiments that deal with the quantum world. Bohr writes:
[T]he account of all evidence must be expressed in classical terms. The argument is simply that by the word 'experiment' we refer to a situation where we can tell to others what we have done and what we have learned and that, therefore, the account of the experimental arrangement and of the results of the observations must be expressed in unambiguous language with suitable application of the terminology of classical physics (APHK, p. 39).[94]
According to Faye, there are various explanations for why Bohr believed that classical concepts were necessary for describing quantum phenomena. Faye groups explanations into five frameworks: empiricism (i.e.
According to Faye "Bohr thought of the atom as real. Atoms are neither heuristic nor logical constructions." However, according to Faye, he did not believe "that the quantum mechanical formalism was true in the sense that it gave us a literal ('pictorial') rather than a symbolic representation of the quantum world."[94] Therefore, Bohr's theory of complementarity "is first and foremost a semantic and epistemological reading of quantum mechanics that carries certain ontological implications."[94] As Faye explains, Bohr's indefinability thesis is that
[T]he truth conditions of sentences ascribing a certain kinematic or dynamic value to an atomic object are dependent on the apparatus involved, in such a way that these truth conditions have to include reference to the experimental setup as well as the actual outcome of the experiment.[94]
Faye notes that Bohr's interpretation makes no reference to a "collapse of the wave function during measurements" (and indeed, he never mentioned this idea). Instead, Bohr "accepted the Born statistical interpretation because he believed that the ψ-function has only a symbolic meaning and does not represent anything real." Since for Bohr, the ψ-function is not a literal pictorial representation of reality, there can be no real collapse of the wavefunction.[94]
A much debated point in recent literature is what Bohr believed about atoms and their reality and whether they are something else than what they seem to be. Some like Henry Folse argue that Bohr saw a distinction between observed phenomena and a transcendental reality. Jan Faye disagrees with this position and holds that for Bohr, the quantum formalism and complementarity was the only thing we could say about the quantum world and that "there is no further evidence in Bohr's writings indicating that Bohr would attribute intrinsic and measurement-independent state properties to atomic objects [...] in addition to the classical ones being manifested in measurement."[94]
Second World War
Assistance to refugee scholars
The rise of
In April 1940, early in the Second World War,
Bohr kept the Institute running, but all the foreign scholars departed.[99]
Meeting with Heisenberg
Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium-235 to construct an
In 1957, Heisenberg wrote to
Manhattan Project
In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazis
When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain,
Bohr was warmly received by
Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos, but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years.
Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations. In April 1944, he received a letter from
Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results. Bohr's friend, Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, informed President Roosevelt about Bohr's opinions, and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944. Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval.[131][132] When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944, they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project, and the aide-mémoire of their conversation contained a rider that "enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information, particularly to the Russians".[133]
In June 1950, Bohr addressed an "Open Letter" to the United Nations calling for international cooperation on nuclear energy.[134][135][136] In the 1950s, after the Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon test, the International Atomic Energy Agency was created along the lines of Bohr's suggestion.[137] In 1957 he received the first ever Atoms for Peace Award.[138]
Later years
Following the ending of the war, Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945, and was re-elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September.
The Second World War demonstrated that science, and physics in particular, now required considerable financial and material resources. To avoid a
Meanwhile, Scandinavian countries formed the
Bohr died of heart failure at his home in Carlsberg on 18 November 1962.[149] He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in the family plot in the Assistens Cemetery in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen, along with those of his parents, his brother Harald, and his son Christian. Years later, his wife's ashes were also interred there.[150] On 7 October 1965, on what would have been his 80th birthday, the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years: the Niels Bohr Institute.[151][152]
Accolades
Bohr received numerous honours and accolades. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received the
Bibliography
- Bohr, Niels (1922). The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution; three essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- —— (2008). Nielsen, J. Rud (ed.). Volume 1: Early Work (1905–1911). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Hoyer, Ulrich (ed.). Volume 2: Work on Atomic Physics (1912–1917). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Nielsen, J. Rud (ed.). Volume 3: The Correspondence Principle (1918–1923). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Nielsen, J. Rud (ed.). Volume 4: The Periodic System (1920–1923). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Stolzenburg, Klaus (ed.). Volume 5: The Emergence of Quantum Mechanics (mainly 1924–1926). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Kalckar, Jørgen (ed.). Volume 6: Foundations of Quantum Physics I (1926–1932). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Kalckar, Jørgen (ed.). Volume 7: Foundations of Quantum Physics I (1933–1958). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Thorsen, Jens (ed.). Volume 8: The Penetration of Charged Particles Through Matter (1912–1954). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
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- —— (2008). Favrholdt, David (ed.). Volume 10: Complementarity Beyond Physics (1928–1962). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Aaserud, Finn (ed.). Volume 11: The Political Arena (1934–1961). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Aaserud, Finn (ed.). Volume 12: Popularization and People (1911–1962). Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
- —— (2008). Aaserud, Finn (ed.). Volume 13: Cumulative Subject Index. Niels Bohr Collected Works. Amsterdam: Elsevier. OCLC 272382249.
See also
Notes
- ^ a b Politiets Registerblade [Register cards of the Police] (in Danish). Copenhagen: Københavns Stadsarkiv. 7 June 1892. Station Dødeblade (indeholder afdøde i perioden). Filmrulle 0002. Registerblad 3341. ID 3308989. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014.
- ^ a b Pais 1991, pp. 44–45, 538–539.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 35–39.
- ^ There is no truth in the oft-repeated claim that Bohr emulated his brother, Harald, by playing for the Danish national team. Dart, James (27 July 2005). "Bohr's footballing career". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ "Niels Bohr's school years". Niels Bohr Institute. 18 May 2012. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 98–99.
- ^ a b "Life as a Student". Niels Bohr Institute. 16 July 2012. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
- ^ Rhodes 1986, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Aaserud & Heilbron 2013, p. 155.
- ^ "Niels Bohr | Danish physicist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 107–109.
- ^ Kragh 2012, pp. 43–45.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 112.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 133–134.
- ^ a b Pais 1991, pp. 226, 249.
- ^ Stuewer 1985, p. 204.
- ^ "Udstilling om Brejnings historie hitter i Vejle". ugeavisen.dk (in Danish). 11 April 2022. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ Schou, Mette Kjær (22 August 2019). "Bohr Group". icmm.ku.dk. Archived from the original on 19 October 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
- ^ "Neuroscience@NIH > Faculty > Profile". dir.ninds.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 19 October 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
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- ^ "Ernest Bohr Biography and Olympic Results – Olympics". Sports-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ Kragh 2012, p. 122.
- ^ Kennedy 1985, p. 6.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 117–121.
- ^ Kragh 2012, p. 46.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 121–125.
- ^ a b Kennedy 1985, p. 7.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 125–129.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 134–135.
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- ^ Kragh 2012, p. 22.
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- ^ Kragh, Helge. "Niels Bohr's Second Atomic Theory." Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, vol. 10, University of California Press, 1979, pp. 123–86, https://doi.org/10.2307/27757389 Archived 17 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ N. Bohr, "Atomic Structure," Nature, 107. Letter dated 14 February 1921.
- Periodic Tablefor full development of electron structure of atoms.
- ^ Kragh 1985, pp. 50–67.
- ^ Heilbron 1985, pp. 39–47.
- ^ Heilbron 1985, p. 43.
- ^ a b Pais 1991, pp. 146–149.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 152–155.
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- ^ Kragh 2012, pp. 90–91.
- ^ "Forecasting – Prediction is very difficult, especially if it's about the future!". cranfield.ac.cuk. 10 July 2017. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
Prediction is very difficult, especially if it's about the future
- ^ Kragh 2012, p. 39.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 164–167.
- ^ Aaserud, Finn (January 1921). "History of the institute: The establishment of an institute". Niels Bohr Institute. Archived from the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 11 May 2008.
- ^ a b Pais 1991, pp. 169–171.
- ^ Kennedy 1985, pp. 9, 12, 13, 15.
- ^ Hund 1985, pp. 71–73.
- ^ From Bohr's Atom to Electron Waves https://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/Bohr_to_Waves/Bohr_to_Waves.html Archived 10 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ The Age of Entanglement, Louisa Gilder, p.799, 2008.
- Mendeleev.
- ^ Kragh 1985, pp. 61–64.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 202–210.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 215.
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- ^ Jammer 1989, p. 188.
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- ^ Pais 1991, p. 238.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 243.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 275–279.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 295–299.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 263.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 272–275.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 301.
- ^ MacKinnon 1985, pp. 112–113.
- ^ MacKinnon 1985, p. 101.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 304–309.
- ^ Bohr 1928, p. 582.
- ^ Dialogue 1985, pp. 121–140.
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- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 464–465.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 337–340, 368–370.
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- ^ a b Stuewer 1985, pp. 211–216.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 456.
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- ^ Honner 1982, p. 1.
- ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 60.
- ^ a b Faye 1991, p. 37.
- ^ Stewart 2010, p. 416.
- ^ Aaserud & Heilbron 2013, pp. 159–160: "A statement about religion in the loose notes on Kierkegaard may throw light on the notion of wildness that appears in many of Bohr's letters. 'I, who do not feel in any way united with, and even less, bound to a God, and therefore am also much poorer [than Kierkegaard], would say that the good [is] the overall lofty goal, as only by being good [can one] judge according to worth and right.'"
- ^ Aaserud & Heilbron 2013, p. 110: "Bohr's sort of humor, use of parables and stories, tolerance, dependence on family, feelings of indebtedness, obligation, and guilt, and his sense of responsibility for science, community, and, ultimately, humankind in general, are common traits of the Jewish intellectual. So too is a well-fortified atheism. Bohr ended with no religious belief and a dislike of all religions that claimed to base their teachings on revelations."
- ^ Favrholdt 1992, pp. 42–63.
- ^ Richardson & Wildman 1996, p. 289.
- ^ Camilleri & Schlosshauer 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Faye, Jan. "Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 ed.). Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
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- ^ Pais 1991, p. 476.
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- Ribbentrop's deputy, was to persuade Niels Bohr to mediate for peace between Great Britain and Germany.] An interview with Ivan Supek relating to the 1941 Bohr – Heisenberg meeting.
- ^ Heisenberg, Werner. "Letter From Werner Heisenberg to Author Robert Jungk". The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association, Inc. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 21 December 2006.
- ^ Aaserud, Finn (6 February 2002). "Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting". Niels Bohr Archive. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2007.
- ^ "Copenhagen – Michael Frayn". The Complete Review. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ Horizon: Hitler's Bomb, BBC Two, 24 February 1992
- ^ "The Saboteurs – Episode Guide". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ Rozental 1967, p. 168.
- ^ a b Rhodes 1986, pp. 483–484.
- ^ Hilberg 1961, p. 596.
- ^ Kieler 2007, pp. 91–93.
- ^ Stadtler, Morrison & Martin 1995, p. 136.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 479.
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- ^ Powers 1993, p. 237.
- ^ Thirsk 2006, p. 374.
- ^ Rife 1999, p. 242.
- ^ Medawar & Pyke 2001, p. 65.
- ^ Jones 1978, pp. 474–475.
- ^ a b Jones 1985, pp. 280–282.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 491.
- ^ Cockcroft 1963, p. 46.
- ^ Pais 1991, pp. 498–499.
- ^ Gowing 1985, p. 269.
- ^ "Professor Bohr ankommet til Moskva" [Professor Bohr arrived in Moscow]. De frie Danske (in Danish). May 1944. p. 7. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
- ^ a b Pais 1991, p. 497.
- ^ Pais 1991, p. 496.
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- ^ Gowing 1985, p. 271.
- ^ Aaserud 2006, p. 708.
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References
- Aaserud, Finn (2006). Kokowski, M. (ed.). Niels Bohr's Mission for an 'Open World' (PDF). Proceedings of the 2nd ICESHS. Cracow. pp. 706–709. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
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- Bohr, Niels (1985) [1922]. "Nobel Prize Lecture: The Structure of the Atom (excerpts)". In ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
- Bohr, Niels (1985) [1949]. "The Bohr-Einstein Dialogue". In ISBN 978-0-674-62415-3.
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- Heisenberg, Elisabeth (1984). Inner Exile: Recollections of a Life With Werner Heisenberg. Boston: Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-3146-8.
- Hilberg, Raul (1961). The Destruction of the European Jews. Vol. 2. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09557-9.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link - Stadtler, Bea; Morrison, David Beal; Martin, David Stone (1995). The Holocaust: A History of Courage and Resistance. West Orange, New Jersey: Behrman House. ISBN 978-0-87441-578-0.
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Further reading
- Aaserud, Finn (February 2002). "Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting". Niels Bohr Archive. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
- Blaedel, Niels (1988). Harmony and Unity: The Life of Niels Bohr. Madison, Wisconsin: Science Tech. OCLC 17411890.
- Feilden, Tom (3 February 2010). "The Gunfighter's Dilemma". news.bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2013. Bohr's researches on reaction times.
- Moore, Ruth (1966). Niels Bohr: The Man, His Science, and the World They Changed. New York: Knopf. OCLC 712016.
- OCLC 55739245.
- OCLC 44467534.
- OCLC 76416691.
- Vilhjálmsson, Vilhjálmur Örn; Blüdnikow, Bent (2006). "Rescue, Expulsion, and Collaboration: Denmark's Difficulties with its World War II Past". Jewish Political Studies Review. 18: 3–4. from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
External links
- Niels Bohr Archive
- Author profile in the database zbMATH
- Works by Niels Bohr at Project Gutenberg
- Niels Bohr at IMDb
- Newspaper clippings about Niels Bohr in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Niels Bohr on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1922 The Structure of the Atom
- Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 31 October 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives – interviews conducted by Leon Rosenfeld, Erik Rudinger, and Aage Petersen
- Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 1 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
- Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 7 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
- Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 14 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
- Oral history interview transcript for Niels Bohr on 17 November 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
- "The Bohr-Heisenberg meeting in September 1941". American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 4 July 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
- "Resources for Frayn's Copenhagen: Niels Bohr". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
- "Video – Niels Bohr (1962): Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge". Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings. Retrieved 9 July 2014.