Niger Delta
The Niger Delta is the delta of the Niger River sitting directly on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria.[1][2] It is located within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, which include: all six states from the South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone and two states (Abia and Imo) from South East geopolitical zone.
The Niger Delta is a very densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil.[3] The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate.
The delta is a petroleum-rich region and has been the center of international concern over extensive pollution which is often used as an example of ecocide.[4][5][6][7] The principal cause is major oil spills by multinational corporations of the petroleum industry.[8][9]
Geography
The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian government, extends over about 70,000 km2 (27,000 sq mi) and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present-day
The Niger Delta and the South South geopolitical zone (which contains six of the states in Niger Delta) are two different entities. The Niger Delta separates the
Demographics[8]
Some 31 million people
History
Colonial period
The area was the
In 1953, the old eastern region had a major crisis when professor
Post-colonial period
In 1961, another major crisis occurred when the then eastern region of Nigeria allowed present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from the region of what is now Akwa Ibom and Cross River states) through a plebiscite while the leadership of the Northern Region took the necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon in Nigeria, in present-day Adamawa and Taraba states. The aftermath of the 1961 plebiscite has led to a dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the small territory of Bakassi.
A new phase of the struggle saw the declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by
Nigerian Civil War
The people of the Eastern region mostly the Igbo speaking language suffered heavily with the great loss of lives and properties, hunger and starvation, and sustained many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, in which the eastern region declared an independent state named Biafra that was eventually defeated.[13][14][15] During this period, schools were shut down completely, and gunfire became a daily occurrence.
Non-violent resistance
Following the civil war, local communities increasingly demanded social and
Recent armed conflict
When long-held concerns about loss of control over resources to the oil companies were voiced by the
Government and private initiatives to develop the Niger Delta region have been introduced recently.[when?] These include the Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, and the Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization based in Port Harcourt. Uz and Uz Transnational, a company with a strong commitment to the Niger Delta, has introduced ways of developing the poor in the Niger Delta, especially in Rivers State. In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an "oil war" throughout the Niger Delta against both, pipelines and oil-production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Nigerian Government claim to have inflicted heavy casualties on one another.[19] In August 2009, the Nigerian government granted amnesty to the militants; many militants subsequently surrendered their weapons in exchange for a presidential pardon, rehabilitation programme, and education.
Sub-regions
Western Niger Delta consists of the western section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Delta, and the southernmost parts of Edo, and Ondo States. The western (or Northern) Niger Delta is a heterogeneous society with several ethnic groups including the
Central Niger Delta consists of the central section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia and Imo States. The Central Niger Delta region has the
(Khana, Gokana, Tai and Eleme), the Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye and Ndoki in Rivers State, Abia State and Imo State, who are considered as a sub-group of the Igbo ethnic group.Eastern Niger Delta consists of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. It has the homogeneous
people.Nigerian oil
Nigeria has become
In September 2012 Eland Oil & Gas purchased a 45% interest in OML 40, with its partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from the Shell Group. They intend to recommission the existing infrastructure and restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m3) of oil per day with a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m3) of oil per day within four years.
Oil revenue derivation
Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to the
Year | Federal | State* | Local | Special Projects | Derivation Formula** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1958 | 40% | 60% | 0% | 0% | 50% |
1968 | 80% | 20% | 0% | 0% | 10% |
1977 | 75% | 22% | 3% | 0% | 10% |
1982 | 55% | 32.5% | 10% | 2.5% | 10% |
1989 | 50% | 24% | 15% | 11% | 10% |
1995 | 48.5% | 24% | 20% | 7.5% | 13% |
2001 | 48.5% | 24% | 20% | 7.5% | 13% |
* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.
**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state. World Bank Report
Media
The documentary film Sweet Crude, which premiered April 2009 at the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, tells the story of Nigeria's Niger Delta.[27]
Environmental issues
The Niger Delta is a region of unparalleled ecological richness, characterized by its intricate network of waterways, lush mangrove forests, and diverse ecosystems. However, the serene beauty of this landscape has been damaged by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Over the years, the Niger Delta has experienced a series of devastating oil spills, primarily caused by industrial activities related to the extraction and transportation of oil and gas. Due to this high amount of spills, the Niger Delta is considered one of the most polluted areas on Earth.[28] These spills have inflicted severe and continuous damage on the delicate balance of the region's ecosystems. They impact both the environment and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on its resources.
Two spills in 2008 and 2009 have been the largest and most harmful by far, collectively lasting for almost 150 days and causing flora death over a span of 393 km2. The extensive network of tidal rivers and mangrove swamps make it even easier for the oil to spread quickly, and the delta becomes a sink, trapping the oil that is not removed.[29] The spills came from a pipeline operated by Shell Petroleum Development Company. In addition to smaller spills that took place over the years 2006–2019, it is estimated that a total of 92,479,170 liters (or 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil were released into the studied area.[29]
Since then, following spills have continued to exacerbate the ecological damage. The exact impact of spills like these is hard to know due to the fact that traditional field studies are nearly impossible in this region. However, techniques such as the normalized difference vegetation index have been successful in measuring the impact of oil spills on the river's plant health. Additionally, independently collected field samples have confirmed the presence of hydrocarbon pollutants in high concentration in the impacted areas.[29]
Oil and gas pollution/spills greatly increase the possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil are particularly concerning due to their link to the health problems caused by exposure.[30] This includes organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene,[31] as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium and cadmium.[citation needed] In fact, according to the Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks, more than 1300 different chemicals can be put into the environment as a result of oil and gas exploration.[32] Then, humans come in contact with these harmful substances through eating contaminated food as well as breathing in the air pollution.[33] Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are especially concerning because of their persistence in the environment. Even in low amounts, the prolonged exposure can cause serious health issues such as cancer and other chronic illnesses.[33] In general, the harmful pollutants emitted from oil spills and other pollution include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, and infertility.[33] Less deadly, but still serious, health problems include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes on face and neck, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, and diarrhea are common issues caused from oil spills.[34]
Collectively, more than 1 million people live in the area that has been contaminated by oil/gas pollution. This population is especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses because of their pre-existing low life expectancy and large ratio of young people.[29] Additionally, a 2006 report done by the United Nations Development Programme says “The Niger Delta is a region suffering from administrative neglect, crumbling social infrastructure and services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth and squalor, and endemic conflict,".[35] These factors make it increasingly harder for the local communities to deal with the negative effects caused by foreign oil exploration.
The people affected by oil spills in the Niger Delta are diverse communities residing in the region. Their lives are intricately connected to the natural environment. These communities, often made up of indigenous groups, rely on the Niger Delta's resources for their food, water, livelihoods, and cultural practices. The impact of oil spills on these communities is multi-faceted and extends beyond health problems. Fishing and agriculture are central to the livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills contaminate water sources and farmlands, severely affecting fish stocks and crops. This disruption can lead to food shortages and economic hardship for those dependent on these activities.[36]
Another facet of the people's livelihoods is their culture. The Niger Delta's people have strong spiritual and cultural ties to their environment. The harm inflicted on their land and waterways caused by oil spills deeply disrupts sacred sites and interferes with their cultural practices. The loss of these cultural elements contributes to a sense of displacement and identity crisis among the affected groups/communities.[37]
Additionally, when communities fight back against the oil industries as an act of protest, violence is often perpetuated. Since the 1990s there has been continuous violence in an effort to give local communities control of the oil in the delta. These acts of violence include kidnapping of foreign oil workers and holding them for ransom, vandalization, and even the blowing-up of oil installations.[37]
Notes
- ^ C. Michael Hogan, "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth Archived 2013-04-20 at the Wayback Machine, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013
- S2CID 249615285.
- ^ a b Otoabasi, Akpan (2011). The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan. Spectrum Books.
- ^ "'Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction". NBC News. 2021-04-07. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
- ^ "Fighting ecocide in Nigeria". theecologist.org. 5 February 2014. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
- ^ "UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making?". unpo.org. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
- ^ a b Aghalino, S.O (2004). Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. Maiduguri journal of Historical studies.
- ISBN 9789789889907.
- ^ Akpan, D. (2006). Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference.
- ^ CRS Report for Congress, Nigeria: Current Issues. Updated 30 January 2008.
- ^ a b "The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group". Retrieved 2023-05-24.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-7128-5
- ISBN 978-1-315-22929-4
- OCLC 476261625.
- ProQuest 1666393541.
- ^ "State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta". Human Rights Watch. 1998-12-30. Archived from the original on 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2018-01-19.
- ^ Ian Taylor, "China's environmental footprint in Africa" Archived 2007-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, China Dialogue, 2 February 2007.
- ^ "Nigeria militants warn of oil war" Archived 2008-09-15 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 14 September 2008.
- S2CID 110566551.
- ISBN 0-8047-0749-9.
- ISBN 978-1-4772-1868-6.
- ^ Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.
- ^ "Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (PDF). UNFCC. Nov 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
- ^ Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank Archived 2012-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."
- ^ "Gas Flaring in Nigeria" (PDF). Friends of the Earth. October 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
- ^ "Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi". www.sweetcrudemovie.com. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
- S2CID 53705868.
- ^ S2CID 233538622.
- S2CID 3902367.
- S2CID 52156999.
- ^ Bertollini, Roberto; Teresa, Borges; Pim, deVoogt; Peter, Hoet (30 November 2018). "OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU". Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER.
- ^ S2CID 53946118.
- PMID 27007391.
- ^ Nations, United (1 January 2006). "Human Development Report". United Nations.
- PMID 30359365.
- ^ a b Aghalino, S.O. (February 2011). "Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta". Africana. 5 (1): 15. Retrieved December 14, 2023.
References
- Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present
- Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo.
- Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Wari City and Western Niger Delta.
- "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"
External links
- National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta" Archived 2008-08-26 at the Wayback Machine — February 2007 issue.
- Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum on the Niger Delta and its people
- Niger-Delta Development Commission, Niger Delta: A Brief History
- American Association for the Advancement of Science, Niger Delta
- Environmental Rights Action Archived 2005-08-10 at the Wayback Machine
- News on the Niger Delta