Norman Conquest
The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Norman, French, Flemish, and Breton troops, all led by the Duke of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.
William's claim to the
Although William's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on the English throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting
Origins
In 911, the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders.[1] Their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen" from which "Normandy" and "Normans" are derived.[2] The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture as they became assimilated by the French, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity.[3] They adopted the Old French language of their new home and added features from their own Old Norse language, transforming it into the Norman language. They intermarried with the local population[4] and used the territory granted to them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward, annexing territory including the Bessin, the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches.[5]
In 1002, English king Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.[6] Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042.[7] This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy's ambitions for the English throne.[8]
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England.
Tostig's raids and the Norwegian invasion
In early 1066, Harold's exiled brother,
Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian king's bid for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the
Hardrada moved on to York, which surrendered to him. After taking hostages from the leading men of the city, on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge.[27] King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid-September and rushed north, gathering forces as he went.[28] The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York, averaging almost 25 miles (40 kilometres) per day. At dawn on 25 September Harold's forces reached York, where he learned the location of the Norwegians.[29] The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise, defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory was costly, however, as Harold's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the English Channel.[28]
Norman invasion
Norman preparations and forces
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France, including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders.[30] He mustered his forces at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August.[31] The exact numbers and composition of William's force are unknown.[32] A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships, but this may be an inflated figure.[33] Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated, varying from 14,000 to 150,000 men.[34] Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William's forces: 7000–8000 men, 1000–2000 of them cavalry;[35] 10,000–12,000 men;[34] 10,000 men, 3000 of them cavalry;[36] or 7500 men.[32] The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry, infantry, and archers or crossbowmen, with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined.[37] Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant, most are padded with extra names; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings.[32][38][e]
William of Poitiers states that William obtained Pope Alexander II's consent for the invasion, signified by a papal banner, along with diplomatic support from other European rulers. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support before the invasion.[f] William's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.[40]
Landing and Harold's march south
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area.[30] This ensured supplies for the army, and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area, it weakened William's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding.[41]
Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his force there, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.[42] It is unclear when Harold learned of William's landing, but it was probably while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings, so it is likely that he took a second week to march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day,[43] for the nearly 200 miles (320 kilometres) to London.[44] Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy.[45] Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (10 kilometres) from William's castle at Hastings.[46]
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold's army, although two Norman sources give figures of 1.2 million or 400,000 men.
Hastings
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources.[51] Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers.[52] The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge, and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons. Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops. While the Bretons were fleeing, rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William rallied his troops. Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals, tempting the English into pursuit, and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly.[53] The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold, about which different stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head.[54] Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow.[55] William of Poitiers gives no details about Harold's death.[56]
Aftermath of Hastings
The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, either by his armour or marks on his body.
After his victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead
William moved up the
English resistance
First rebellions
Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years.
Revolts of 1069
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria,
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia, where the forces of Eadric the Wild, together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from
In early 1070, having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric, and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south.
Danish troubles
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw, sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake,[m] at that time based on the Isle of Ely. Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William, and returned home.[80] After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large, protected by the marshes, and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area. Edwin and Morcar again turned against William, and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed, Morcar reached Ely, where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance. After some costly failures, the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely, defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island, marking the effective end of English resistance.[81] Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him.[82]
Last resistance
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071,[83] but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland.[n] This campaign, which included a land army supported by a fleet, resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William.[82] The exact status of this subordination was unclear – the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William's man. Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous.[84]
In 1075, during William's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford, conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls.[85] The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear, but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger's, held at Exning. Another earl, Waltheof, despite being one of William's favourites, was also involved, and some Breton lords were ready to offer support. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey of Coutances, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, and Ralph went into exile. Meanwhile, the Danish king's brother, Cnut, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home.[85] William did not return to England until later in 1075, to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion, celebrating Christmas at Winchester.[86] Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. By that time William had returned to the continent, where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany.[85]
Control of England
Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control.
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands.
A measure of William's success in taking control is that, from 1072 until the
Consequences
Elite replacement
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers. The Domesday Book of 1086 meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation, revealing that by that time only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands. Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed, the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country.[99][100]
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical offices. After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans, and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs. Likewise in the Church, senior English office-holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died. By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman, and English abbots became uncommon, especially in the larger monasteries.[101]
English emigration
Following the conquest, many Anglo-Saxons, including groups of nobles, fled the country[102] for Scotland, Ireland, or Scandinavia.[103] Members of King Harold Godwinson's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England.[69] The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s, when a group of Anglo-Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire.[103] The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries.[102] The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, until then a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn.[104] Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast and established towns with names such as New London and New York.[102]
Governmental systems
Before the Normans arrived, Anglo-Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy.
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments.[107] They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel, although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office. By the end of William's reign, most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans. The language of official documents also changed, from Old English to Latin. The forest laws were introduced, leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest.[108] The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom, and was unique to medieval Europe. It was divided into sections based on the shires, and listed all the landholdings of each tenant-in-chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest.[114]
Language
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of
Immigration and intermarriage
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest, although exact figures cannot be established. Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English, but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear. Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100, but such marriages were uncommon. Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English.
Society
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess. The major change was the elimination of
Many of the free peasants of Anglo-Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non-free serfs. Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear, but the invasion and its after-effects probably accelerated a process already underway. The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside, rather than scattered farms, was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England.[119] The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066.[122] Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest, current scholarship has mostly rejected this view. Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class, so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women's status after 1066. Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships. Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land, and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished.[123]
Historiography
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, when discussing the death of William the Conqueror, denounced him and the conquest in verse, but the king's obituary notice from William of Poitiers, a Frenchman, was full of praise. Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them, with little agreement.[124] The theory or myth of the "Norman yoke" arose in the 17th century,[125] the idea that Anglo-Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest.[126] This theory owes more to the period in which it was developed than to historical facts, but it continues to be used to the present day in both political and popular thought.[127]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself, instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion. Some, such as
See also
- Ermenfrid Penitential
- Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland
- Norman invasion of Wales
- Norman conquest of southern Italy
Notes
- Cnut the Great and Emma of Normandy, and thus was the half-brother of Edward the Confessor. He reigned from 1040 to 1042, and died without children.[13] Harthacnut's father Cnut had defeated Æthelred's son Edmund Ironside in 1016 to claim the English throne and marry Æthelred's widow, Emma.[14] After Harthacnut's death in 1042, Magnus began preparations for an invasion of England, which was only stopped by his own death in 1047.[15]
- Cnut,[19] but he did not make his bid for the throne until 1069.[20] Tostig Godwinson's attacks in early 1066 may have been the beginning of a bid for the throne, but after defeat at the hands of Edwin and Morcar and the desertion of most of his followers he threw his lot in with Harald Hardrada.[21]
- ^ Tostig, who had been Earl of Northumbria, was expelled from that office by a Northumbrian rebellion in late 1065. After King Edward sided with the rebels, Tostig went into exile in Flanders.[22]
- ^ The King of Scotland, Malcolm III, is said to have been Tostig's sworn brother.[22]
- ^ Of those 35, 5 are known to have died in the battle – Robert of Vitot, Engenulf of Laigle, Robert fitzErneis, Roger son of Turold, and Taillefer.[39]
- ^ The Bayeux Tapestry may possibly depict a papal banner carried by William's forces, but this is not named as such in the tapestry.[40]
- ^ Of these named persons, eight died in the battle – Harold, Gyrth, Leofwine, Godric the sheriff, Thurkill of Berkshire, Breme, and someone known only as "son of Helloc".[39]
- ^ A 12th-century tradition stated that Harold's face could not be recognised and Edith the Fair, Harold's common-law wife, was brought to the battlefield to identify his body from marks that only she knew.[57]
- ^ Ætheling is the Anglo-Saxon term for a royal prince with some claim to the throne.[61]
- ^ The coronation was marred when the Norman troops stationed outside the abbey heard the sounds of those inside acclaiming the king and began burning nearby houses, thinking the noises were signs of a riot.[64]
- ^ Eadric's by-name "the Wild" is relatively common, so despite suggestions that it arose from Eadric's participation in the northern uprisings of 1069, this is not certain.[67]
- Osulf, his rival for power in Northumbria.[70]
- ^ Although the epithet "the Wake" has been claimed to be derived from "the wakeful one", the first use of the epithet is from the mid-13th century, and is thus unlikely to have been contemporary.[79]
- ^ Malcolm, in 1069 or 1070, had married Margaret, sister of Edgar the Ætheling.[70]
Citations
- ^ Bates Normandy Before 1066 pp. 8–10
- ^ Crouch Normans pp. 15–16
- ^ Bates Normandy Before 1066 p. 12
- ^ Bates Normandy Before 1066 pp. 20–21
- ^ Hallam and Everard Capetian France p. 53
- ^ Williams Æthelred the Unready p. 54
- ^ Huscroft Ruling England p. 3
- ^ Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 86–99
- ^ a b Higham Death of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 167–181
- ^ Walker Harold pp. 136–138
- ^ Bates William the Conqueror pp. 73–77
- ^ Higham Death of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 188–190
- ^ Keynes "Harthacnut" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 84
- ^ Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 423–424
- ^ Huscroft Ruling England pp. 12–14
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 96–97
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 132–133
- ^ Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 86–87
- ^ Bates William the Conqueror pp. 103–104
- ^ Thomas Norman Conquest pp. 33–34
- ^ a b Stenton Anglo-Saxon England pp. 578–580
- ^ Walker Harold pp. 144–145
- ^ Walker Harold pp. 144–150
- ^ Walker Harold pp. 154–158
- ^ Marren 1066 pp. 65–71
- ^ Marren 1066 p. 73
- ^ a b Walker Harold pp. 158–165
- ^ Marren 1066 pp. 74–75
- ^ a b Bates William the Conqueror pp. 79–89
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror p. 192
- ^ a b c d Gravett Hastings pp. 20–21
- ^ Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest p. 25
- ^ a b Lawson Battle of Hastings pp. 163–164
- ^ Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest p. 26
- ^ Marren 1066 pp. 89–90
- ^ Gravett Hastings p. 27
- ^ Marren 1066 pp. 108–109
- ^ a b c Marren 1066 pp. 107–108
- ^ a b Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 120–123
- ^ Marren 1066 p. 98
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 72
- ^ Marren 1066 p. 93
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 124
- ^ Lawson Battle of Hastings pp. 180–182
- ^ Marren 1066 pp. 99–100
- ^ Lawson Battle of Hastings p. 128
- ^ Lawson Battle of Hastings pp. 130–133
- ^ a b Gravett Hastings pp. 28–34
- ^ Marren 1066 p. 105
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 126
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 73
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 127–128
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 129
- ^ Marren 1066 p. 137
- ^ Gravett Hastings p. 77
- ^ Gravett Hastings p. 80
- ^ a b c Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 131
- ^ a b Gravett Hastings p. 81
- ^ Marren 1066 p. 146
- ^ Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest p. 91
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 204–205
- ^ a b Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 205–206
- ^ Gravett Hastings p. 84
- ^ a b c Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 138–139
- ^ a b c Douglas William the Conqueror p. 212
- ^ Williams "Eadric the Wild" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
- ^ Walker Harold pp. 186–190
- ^ a b Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 140–141
- ^ a b c Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 142–144
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 214–215
- ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 24–27
- ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 20–21
- ^ a b Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 27–34
- ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest p. 35
- ^ a b c d Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 35–41
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 145–146
- ^ Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest p. 56
- ^ Roffe "Hereward" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 221–222
- ^ Williams English and the Norman Conquest pp. 49–57
- ^ a b Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 146–147
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 225–226
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror p. 227
- ^ a b c Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 231–233
- ^ Bates William the Conqueror pp. 181–182
- ^ Douglas William the Conqueror p. 216 and footnote 4
- ^ Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 102–105
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 82–83
- ^ a b Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 79–80
- ^ a b Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 84
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 83–84
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery pp. 75–76
- ^ Chibnall Anglo-Norman England pp. 11–13
- ^ Kaufman and Kaufman Medieval Fortress p. 110
- ^ Liddiard Castles in Context p. 36
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 89
- ^ Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 91
- ^ Thomas English and Normans pp. 105–137
- ^ Thomas "Significance" English Historical Review pp. 303–333
- ^ Thomas English and Normans pp. 202–208
- ^ a b c Ciggaar Western Travellers pp. 140–141
- ^ a b Daniell From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta pp. 13–14
- ^ Heath Byzantine Armies p. 23
- ^ Thomas Norman Conquest p. 59
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 187
- ^ a b Loyn Governance of Anglo-Saxon England p. 176
- ^ a b Thomas Norman Conquest p. 60
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 31
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 194–195
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 36–37
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 198–199
- ^ Keynes "Charters and Writs" Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England p. 100
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 200–201
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 323–324
- ^ Crystal "Story of Middle English" English Language
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 321–322
- ^ Thomas Norman Conquest pp. 107–109
- ^ a b Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 327
- ^ a b Clanchy England and its Rulers p. 93
- ^ Huscroft Ruling England p. 94
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 329
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 281–283
- ^ a b c d Clanchy England and its Rulers pp. 31–35
- ^ Chibnall Debate p. 6
- ^ Chibnall Debate p. 38
- ^ Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 318–319
- ^ Quoted in Clanchy England and its Rulers p. 32
- ^ Singman Daily Life p. xv
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