Normans

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the early medieval Normans. For modern Normans, see Normandy. For other uses, see Norman.

Normans
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The Normans (

ethnic and cultural "Norman" identity in the first half of the 10th century, an identity which continued to evolve over the centuries.[6] The Normans adopted the culture and language of the French, while they continued the martial tradition of their Viking ancestors as mercenaries and adventurers. In the 11th century, Normans from the duchy conquered England and Sicily
.

The

Bailiwick of Jersey) are considered to be officially the last remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, and are not part of the United Kingdom but are instead self-governing Crown Dependencies.[12][13]

The Normans are noted both for their culture, such as their unique

Norman conquest of England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.[14] Norman and Anglo-Norman forces contributed to the Iberian Reconquista from the early eleventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries.[15]

Norman cultural and military influence spread from these new European centres to the Crusader states of the Near East, where their prince Bohemond I founded the Principality of Antioch in the Levant, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, to Ireland, and to the coasts of north Africa and the Canary Islands. The legacy of the Normans persists today through the regional languages and dialects of France, England, Spain, Quebec and Sicily, and also through the various cultural, judicial, and political arrangements they introduced in their conquered territories.[8][16]

Etymology

The English name "Normans" comes from the

Viking".[19]

The 11th century

Benedictine monk and historian, Goffredo Malaterra
, characterised the Normans thus:

Specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and garb of war.[20]

Settling of Normandy

See also:
Richard the Fearless
Duchy of Normandy between 911 and 1050. In blue the areas of intense Norse settlement

In the course of the 10th century, the initially destructive incursions of

Viking ruler Rollo also known as Gaange Rolf (c. 846–c. 929), from Scandinavia, and was situated in the former Frankish kingdom of Neustria.[24] The treaty offered Rollo and his men the French coastal lands along the English Channel between the river Epte and the Atlantic Ocean coast in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions.[24] As well as promising to protect the area of Rouen from Viking invasion, Rollo swore not to invade further Frankish lands himself, accepted baptism and conversion to Christianity and swore fealty to King Charles III. Robert I of France stood as godfather during Rollo's baptism.[25] He became the first Duke of Normandy and Count of Rouen.[26] The area corresponded to the northern part of present-day Upper Normandy down to the river Seine, but the Duchy would eventually extend west beyond the Seine.[5] The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of Rouen, and reproduced the old Roman Empire's administrative structure of Gallia Lugdunensis II (part of the former Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul
).

10th–11th century History of the Normans, by Dudo of Saint-Quentin

Before Rollo's arrival, Normandy's populations did not differ from

Danes, Norwegians, Norse–Gaels, Orkney Vikings, possibly Swedes, and Anglo-Danes from the English Danelaw
territory which earlier came under Norse control in the late 9th century.

The descendants of Vikings replaced the

Latin of the Romans. The Norman language (Norman French) was forged by the adoption of the indigenous langue d'oïl branch of Romance by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the French regional languages that survive today.[5]

The new Norman rulers were culturally and ethnically distinct from the old

Norman dominated England.[9]

As the proliferation of aristocratic families throughout the French kingdom limited the prospects of most heirs, young knights were encouraged to seek land and riches beyond their homeland, with Normandy becoming a major source of such adventurers.

Richard the Lion-Heart
, one of the more famous and illustrious Kings of England.

Conquests and military offensives

Italy

Main article: Norman conquest of southern Italy
See also:
Italo-Norman
Roger II

Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold in southern Italy. Probably as the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered southern Italy as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, Norman pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno when a Muslim attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince Guaimar III begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the Prince's request. William of Apulia tells that, in 1016, Norman pilgrims to the shrine of the Archangel Michael at Monte Gargano were met by Melus of Bari, a Lombard nobleman and rebel, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the Byzantine rule, which they did.

The two most prominent Norman families to arrive in the

Mediterranean were descendants of Tancred of Hauteville and the Drengot family
. A group of Normans with at least five brothers from the Drengot family fought the Byzantines in Apulia under the command of Melus of Bari. Between 1016 and 1024, in a fragmented political context, the County of Ariano [it] was founded by another group of Norman knights headed by Gilbert Buatère and hired by Melus of Bari. Defeated at Cannae, Melus of Bari escaped to Bamberg, Germany, where he died in 1022. The county, which replaced the pre-existing chamberlainship, is considered to be the first political body established by the Normans in the south of Italy.[28][29] Then Rainulf Drengot, from the same family, received the county of Aversa from Duke Sergius IV of Naples in 1030.

The early Norman castle at Adrano

The Hauteville family achieved princely rank by proclaiming Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno "Duke of Apulia and Calabria". He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count in his capital of Melfi. The Drengot family thereafter attained the principality of Capua, and Emperor Henry III legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, Drogo, as "dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae" ("Duke and Master of Italy and Count of the Normans of all Apulia and Calabria") in 1047.[30]

From these bases, the Normans eventually captured

House of Hohenstaufen through marriage.[31] The Normans left their legacy in many castles, such as William Iron Arm's citadel at Squillace, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's Cappella Palatina at Palermo
, which dot the landscape and give a distinct architectural flavor to accompany its unique history.

Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of

al-Idrisi for King Roger II of Sicily, and entitled "Kitab Rudjdjar" ("The Book of Roger").[35]

The Iberian Peninsula

The Normans began appearing in the military confrontations between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula since the early eleventh century. The first Norman who appears in the narrative sources was

Robert Burdet in the 1120s in the Ebro frontier. By 1129 Robert Burdet had been granted a semi-independent principality in the city of Tarragona by the then Archbishop of this see, Oleguer Bonestruga. Several others of Rotrou's Norman followers were rewarded with lands in the Ebro valley by King Alfonso I of Aragon for their services.[37]

With the rising popularity of the sea route to the Holy Land, Norman and Anglo-Norman crusaders also started to be encouraged locally by Iberian prelates to participate in the Portuguese incursions into the western areas of the Peninsula. The first of these incursions occurred when a fleet of these Crusaders was invited by the Portuguese king

Afonso I Henriques to conquer the city of Lisbon in 1142.[38] Although this Siege of Lisbon (1142) was a failure it created a precedent for their involvement in Portugal. So in 1147 when another group of Norman and other groups of crusaders from Northern Europe arrived in Porto on their way to join the crusading forces of the Second Crusade, the Bishop of Porto and later Afonso Henriques according to De expugnatione Lyxbonensi convinced them to help with the siege of Lisbon. This time the city was captured and according to the arrangement agreed upon with the Portuguese monarch many of them settled in the newly sacked city.[39] The following year the remainder of the crusading fleet, including a substantial number of Anglo-Normans, was invited by the count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer IV, to participate in the siege of Tortosa (1148). Again the Normans were rewarded with lands in the newly conquered frontier city.[40]

North Africa

See also: Kingdom of Africa

Between 1135 and 1160, the Norman Kingdom of Sicily conquered and kept as vassals several cities on the Ifriqiya coast, corresponding to Tunisia and parts of Algeria and Libya today. They were lost to the Almohads.

Byzantium

See also:
Byzantine-Norman wars, Varangian Guard, and William Iron Arm

Soon after the Normans began to enter Italy, they entered the

George Maniaces
in 1038–40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service actually were from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.

A chronological map of the Norman Conquests

One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was

Alexius Komnenos.[41]

Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenian vassal-states of

Tarsus
may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.

Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the

George Maniaces
in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.

Arbanon (i.e., ἐξ Ἀρβάνων ὁρμωμένω Κομισκόρτη; the term Κομισκόρτη is short for κόμης της κόρτης meaning "Count of the Tent").[42] The city's garrison resisted until February 1082, when Dyrrachium was betrayed to the Normans by the Venetian and Amalfitan merchants who had settled there. The Normans were now free to penetrate into the hinterland; they took Ioannina and some minor cities in southwestern Macedonia and Thessaly before appearing at the gates of Thessalonica. Dissension among the high ranks coerced the Normans to retreat to Italy. They lost Dyrrachium, Valona, and Butrint
in 1085, after the death of Robert.

A few years after the

Arbanon
passes and opened their way to Dibra. The lack of supplies, disease and Byzantine resistance forced Bohemond to retreat from his campaign and sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines in the city of Deabolis.

The further decline of Byzantine state-of-affairs paved the road to a third attack in 1185, when a large Norman army invaded

Adriatic
—fell again to Byzantine hands.

England

See also:
Norman conquest of England, William the Conqueror, Domesday Book, and Anglo-Normans
House of Normandy
William the Conqueror invades England
William I
William II
Henry I
Stephen
Monarchy of the United Kingdom

The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the

Cnut the Great
's conquest of the isle.

When Edward the Confessor finally returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother Harthacnut, he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of Edward's attitude. He appointed Robert of Jumièges Archbishop of Canterbury and made Ralph the Timid Earl of Hereford.

On 14 October 1066,

Bayeux tapestry. The invading Normans and their descendants largely replaced the Anglo-Saxons
as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single Norman culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England, as Dukes of Normandy, owed homage to the King of France for their land on the continent. They considered England to be their most important holding (it brought with it the title of King—an important status symbol).

Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions, so much so that

Norse language of the earlier Anglo-Norse settlers and the Latin used by the church) in the development of Middle English, which, in turn, evolved into Modern English
.

Ireland

See also:
Norman Ireland, and Normans in Ireland
Depiction of the marriage of the Norman lord Strongbow to the Irish princess Aoife in Waterford in 1170
Norman keep in Trim, County Meath

The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at

De Búrca
(Burke) are also of Norman extraction.

Scotland

See also: Scotland in the High Middle Ages and Scoto-Norman

One of the claimants of the English throne opposing

Edgar Atheling, eventually fled to Scotland. King Malcolm III of Scotland married Edgar's sister Margaret, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as Abernethy where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William and surrendered his son Duncan
as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the King of England.

Normans went into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families that would provide some future kings, such as

House of Stewart
, can all be traced back to Norman ancestry.

Wales

See also:
Cambro-Norman
William fitzOsbern
in 1067

Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with Wales. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as Earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the Marches and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.

After the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including

Hugh Lupus in Cheshire. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as baron (barwn), first entered Welsh
at that time.

On crusade

See also:
Richard the Lion-Heart

The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the

War of Barbastro, William of Montreuil, Roger Crispin and probably Walter Guiffard led an army under the papal hanner which took a huge booty as they captured the city from its Andelusi rulers. Later a group of Normans led by certain William (some have suggested this was William the Carpenter) participated in the failed siege of Tudela of 1087.[45]

In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of

Asia Minor. After the successful Siege of Antioch in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of Jerusalem and he worked for the expansion of the Crusader kingdom in Transjordan and the region of Galilee.[citation needed
].

After the First Crusade to the Levant, the Normans continued with their involvement in Iberia as well as other areas of the Mediterranean. Among them was Rotrou of Perche and his followers

Robert Burdet and William Giffard who joined multiple expeditions into the Ebro Valley to aid Alfonso I of Aragon in his campaigns of conquest. Robert Burdet managed to acquire the position of Alcide of Tudela by 1123 and later that of Prince of the city Tarragona in 1129.[46]

Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus

See also:
Guy de Lusignan to take Cyprus

The conquest of Cyprus by the Anglo-Norman forces of the Third Crusade opened a new chapter in the history of the island, which would be under Western European domination for the following 380 years. Although not part of a planned operation, the conquest had much more permanent results than initially expected.

In April 1191,

Acre.[47] But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot Isaac Komnenos.[48] On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Limassol on Cyprus.[48] He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure.[48] Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.[49]

Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular

Robert de Thornham
, as governors of Cyprus.

While in Limassol, Richard the Lion-Heart married

Queen of Cyprus
as well.

Norman expeditionary ship depicted in the chronicle Le Canarien (1490)

The rapid Anglo-Norman conquest proved more important than it seemed. The island occupied a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.[53] Shortly after the conquest, Cyprus was sold to the Knights Templar and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy de Lusignan and became a stable feudal kingdom.[53] It was only in 1489 that the Venetians acquired full control of the island, which remained a Christian stronghold until the fall of Famagusta in 1571.[52]

Canary Islands

See also: Conquest of the Canary Islands

Between 1402 and 1405, the expedition led by the Norman noble

Castilian
colonists.

Bethencourt took the title of

Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla
.

Culture

Language

Main articles: Old Norman, Norman language, and Anglo-Norman literature

When

North Germanic language. Over time, they came to live among the local Gallo-Romance-speaking population, with the two communities converging to the point that the original Norsemen largely assimilated and adopted the local dialect of Old French while contributing some elements from the Old Norse language.[55][56] This Norse-influenced dialect which then arose was known as Old Norman, and it is the ancestor of both the modern Norman language still spoken today in the Channel Islands and parts of mainland Normandy, as well as the historical Anglo-Norman language in England. Old Norman was also an important language of the Principality of Antioch during Crusader rule in the Levant.[57]

Old Norman and Anglo-Norman literature was quite extensive during the Middle Ages, with records existing from notable Norman poets such as Wace, who was born on the island of Jersey and raised in mainland Normandy.[58]

Norman law

Main articles: Norman law and Clameur de haro

The

customaries in Latin by two judges for use by them and their colleagues:[59]
These are the Très ancien coutumier (Very ancient customary), authored between 1200 and 1245; and the Grand coutumier de Normandie (Great customary of Normandy, originally Summa de legibus Normanniae in curia laïcali), authored between 1235 and 1245.

Architecture

Main article: Norman architecture
A quintessential Norman keep: the White Tower at the heart of the Tower of London

Norman architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions they subdued. They spread a unique Romanesque idiom to England, Italy and Ireland, and the encastellation of these regions with keeps in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded arches, particularly over windows and doorways, and massive proportions.

In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the

Norman-Arab architecture within the Kingdom of Sicily and precedes the Early Gothic.[6]

Visual arts

In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century, the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the

Saint-Wandrille. These centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic
tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the 11th and first of the 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.

Italo-Norman artist. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

The French Wars of Religion in the 16th century and the French Revolution in the 18th successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The former, with their violence, caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; the latter, with its assault on religion, caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type, and its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.

By far the most famous work of Norman art is the

Danish Vikings
.

In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as

Arabic inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork
in the 11th century and this continued under Norman domination.

Music

King David
on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B'

Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of

Saint-Evroul Abbey were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot Isembard, La Trinité-du-Mont
became a centre of musical composition.

At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot

Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Sant'Eufemia Lamezia
. There they continued the tradition of singing.

Rulers

See also

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  54. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Béthencourt, Jean de". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  55. ^ Elisabeth Ridel (2010). Les Vikings et les mots. Editions Errance.
  56. ^ "Norman". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2020. Norman, member of those Vikings, or Norsemen, who settled in northern France...The Normans (from Nortmanni: "Northmen") were originally pagan barbarian pirates from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland
  57. ISBN 978-0-472-031276. Archived
    from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2021.
  58. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Robert Wace" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  59. ^ "Norman customary law". Mondes-normands.caen.fr. Archived from the original on 23 November 2013. Retrieved 20 May 2018.

Sources

Primary

Secondary

Further reading

External links

New International Encyclopedia article "Normans
".
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