Norovirus
Norovirus | |
---|---|
Other names | Winter vomiting bug, intravenous fluids)[5] |
Frequency | 685 million cases per year[6] |
Deaths | 200,000 per year[6][7] |
Norovirus, also known as Norwalk virus and sometimes referred to as the winter vomiting disease, is the most common cause of
The
Prevention involves proper
Norovirus results in about 685 million cases of disease and 200,000 deaths globally a year.
Signs and symptoms
Norovirus infection is characterized by nausea, vomiting, watery diarrhea, abdominal pain, and in some cases, loss of taste. A person usually develops symptoms of gastroenteritis 12 to 48 hours after being exposed to norovirus.[11] General lethargy, weakness, muscle aches, headaches, and low-grade fevers may occur. The disease is usually self-limiting, and severe illness is rare. Although having norovirus can be unpleasant, it is not usually dangerous, and most who contract it make a full recovery within two to three days.[1]
Norovirus can establish a long-term infection in people who are
Virology
Norovirus | |
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Transmission electron micrograph of Norovirus particles in feces
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Virus classification | |
(unranked): | Virus |
Realm: | Riboviria |
Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
Phylum: | Pisuviricota |
Class: | Pisoniviricetes |
Order: | Picornavirales |
Family: | Caliciviridae |
Genus: | Norovirus |
Species: | Norwalk virus
|
Transmission
Noroviruses are transmitted directly from person to person (62–84% of all reported outbreaks)
Vomiting, in particular, transmits infection effectively and appears to allow airborne transmission. In one incident, a person who vomited spread the infection across a restaurant, suggesting that many unexplained cases of food poisoning may have their source in vomit.[18] In December 1998, 126 people were dining at six tables; one person vomited onto the floor. Staff quickly cleaned up, and people continued eating. Three days later others started falling ill; 52 people reported a range of symptoms, from fever and nausea to vomiting and diarrhea. The cause was not immediately identified. Researchers plotted the seating arrangement: more than 90% of the people at the same table as the sick person later reported becoming ill. There was a direct correlation between the risk of infection of people at other tables and how close they were to the sick person. More than 70% of the diners at an adjacent table fell ill; at a table on the other side of the restaurant, the infection rate was still 25%. The outbreak was attributed to a Norwalk-like virus (norovirus). Other cases of transmission by vomit were later identified.[19]
In one outbreak at an international scout
Shellfish and salad ingredients are the foods most often implicated in norovirus outbreaks. Ingestion of shellfish that has not been sufficiently heated – under 75 °C (167 °F) – poses a high risk for norovirus infection.[22][23] Foods other than shellfish may be contaminated by infected food handlers.[24] Many norovirus outbreaks have been traced to food that was handled by only one infected person.[25]
Between March and August 2017, in Quebec, Canada, there was an outbreak of norovirus that sickened more than 700 people. According to an investigation by Canada's CFIA Food Control Agency, the culprit was frozen raspberries imported from Harbin Gaotai Food Co Ltd, a Chinese supplier, and then Canadian authorities issued a recall on raspberries products from Harbin Gaotai.[26]
According to the CDC, there was a surge in norovirus cases on thirteen cruise ships in 2023, which marks the highest number of outbreaks since 2012.[27]
Classification
Noroviruses (NoV) are a genetically diverse group of single-stranded
Noroviruses can genetically be classified into at least seven different genogroups (GI, GII, GIII, GIV, GV, GVI, and GVII), which can be further divided into other genetic clusters or genotypes.[30]
Noroviruses commonly isolated in cases of acute gastroenteritis belong to two genogroups: genogroup I (GI) includes Norwalk virus, Desert Shield virus, and Southampton virus; and II (GII), which includes Bristol virus, Lordsdale virus, Toronto virus, Mexico virus, Hawaii virus and Snow Mountain virus.[29]
Most noroviruses that infect humans belong to genogroups GI and GII.[31] Noroviruses from genogroup II, genotype 4 (abbreviated as GII.4) account for the majority of adult outbreaks of gastroenteritis and often sweep across the globe.[32]
Recent examples include US95/96-US strain, associated with global outbreaks in the mid- to late-1990s;
The protein
Structure
Genus | Structure | Symmetry | Capsid | Genomic arrangement | Genomic segmentation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Norovirus | Icosahedral | T=1, T=3 | Non-enveloped | Linear | Monopartite |
Viruses in Norovirus are non-enveloped, with
Genome
Noroviruses contain a linear, non-segmented,
The most variable region of the viral capsid is the P2
Evolution
Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 last shared a
The estimated mutation rate (1.21×10−2 to 1.41 ×10−2 substitutions per site per year) in this virus is high even compared with other RNA viruses.[49]
In addition, a recombination hotspot exists at the ORF1-ORF2 (VP1) junction.[50]
Replication cycle
Genus | Host details | Tissue tropism | Entry details | Release details | Replication site | Assembly site | Transmission |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Norovirus | Humans; mammals | Intestinal epithelium | Cell receptor endocytosis | Lysis | Cytoplasm | Cytoplasm | Oral-fecal |
Pathophysiology
When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops between 12 and 48 hours after exposure, and lasts for 24–72 hours.[51] Sometimes there is loss of taste, general lethargy, weakness, muscle aches, headache, cough, and/or low-grade fever. The disease is usually self-limiting.[citation needed]
Severe illness is rare; although people are frequently treated at the emergency ward, they are rarely admitted to the hospital. The number of deaths from norovirus in the United States is estimated to be around 570–800[52] each year, with most of these occurring in the very young, the elderly, and persons with weakened immune systems. Symptoms may become life-threatening in these groups if dehydration or electrolyte imbalance is ignored or left untreated.[53]
Diagnosis
Specific diagnosis of norovirus is routinely made by
Prevention
After
In Canada, norovirus is a notifiable disease.[57] In both the US and the UK it is not notifiable.[58][59]
Hand washing and disinfectants
Hand washing with soap and water is an effective method for reducing the transmission of norovirus pathogens. Alcohol rubs (≥62% isopropyl alcohol) may be used as an adjunct, but are less effective than hand-washing, as norovirus lacks a lipid viral envelope.[60] Surfaces where norovirus particles may be present can be sanitised with a solution of 1.5% to 7.5% of household bleach in water, or other disinfectants effective against norovirus.[51][61][62]
Health care facilities
In healthcare environments, the prevention of
In 2011, the CDC published a clinical practice guideline addressing strategies for the prevention and control of norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks in healthcare settings.[64][65] Based on a systematic review of published scientific studies, the guideline presents 51 specific evidence-based recommendations, which were organized into 12 categories: 1) patient cohorting and isolation precautions, 2) hand hygiene, 3) patient transfer and ward closure, 4) food handlers in healthcare, 5) diagnostics, 6) personal protective equipment, 7) environmental cleaning, 8) staff leave and policy, 9) visitors, 10) education, 11) active case-finding, and 12) communication and notification. The guideline also identifies eight high-priority recommendations and suggests several areas in need of future research.[citation needed]
Vaccine trials
LigoCyte announced in 2007 that it was working on a vaccine and had started phase 1 trials.[66] The company has since been taken over by Takeda Pharmaceutical Company.[67] As of 2019[update], a bivalent (NoV GI.1/GII.4) intramuscular vaccine had completed phase 1 trials.[68][69] In 2020 the phase 2b trials were finished.[70][71] The vaccine relies on using a virus-like particle that is made of the norovirus capsid proteins in order to mimic the external structure of the virus. Since there is no RNA in this particle, it is incapable of reproducing and cannot cause an infection.[66]
Persistence
The norovirus can survive for long periods outside a human host depending on the surface and temperature conditions: it can survive for weeks on hard and soft surfaces,[72] and it can survive for months, maybe even years in contaminated still water.[73] A 2006 study found the virus remained on surfaces used for food preparation seven days after contamination.[74]
Detection in food
Routine protocols to detect norovirus in clams and oysters by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction are being employed by governmental laboratories such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US.[75]
Treatment
There is no specific medicine to treat people with norovirus illness. Norovirus infection cannot be treated with antibiotics because it is a virus. Treatments aim to avoid complications by measures such as the
Epidemiology
Norovirus causes about 18% of all cases of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. It is relatively common in developed countries and in low-mortality developing countries (20% and 19% respectively) compared to high-mortality developing countries (14%). Proportionately it causes more illness in people in the community or in hospital outpatients (24% and 20% respectively) as compared with hospital inpatients (17%) in whom other causes are more common.[78]
Age and emergence of new norovirus strains do not appear to affect the proportion of gastroenteritis attributable to norovirus.[78]
Norovirus is a common cause of epidemics of gastroenteritis on cruise ships. The CDC, through its Vessel Sanitation Program, records and investigates outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness – mostly caused by norovirus – on cruise ships with both a US and foreign itinerary;[79] there were 12 in 2015, and 10 from 1 January to 9 May 2016. An outbreak may affect over 25% of passengers, and a smaller proportion of crew members.[80]
Human genetics
Epidemiological studies have shown that individuals with different ABO(H) (histo-
Homozygous carriers of any nonsense mutation in the FUT2 gene are called
History
The norovirus was originally named the "Norwalk agent" after Norwalk, Ohio, in the United States, where an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred among children at Bronson Elementary School in November 1968. In 1972, electron microscopy on stored human stool samples identified a virus, which was given the name "Norwalk virus". Numerous outbreaks with similar symptoms have been reported since. The cloning and sequencing of the Norwalk virus genome showed that these viruses have a genomic organization consistent with viruses belonging to the family Caliciviridae.[86] The name "norovirus" (Norovirus for the genus) was approved by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) in 2002.[87] In 2011, however, a press release and a newsletter was published by ICTV, which strongly encouraged the media, national health authorities, and the scientific community to use the virus name Norwalk virus, rather than the genus name Norovirus when referring to outbreaks of the disease. This was also a public response by ICTV to the request from an individual in Japan to rename the Norovirus genus because of the possibility of negative associations for people in Japan and elsewhere who have the family name "Noro". Before this position of ICTV was made public, ICTV consulted widely with members of the Caliciviridae Study Group and carefully discussed the case.[88]
In addition to "Norwalk agent" and "Norwalk virus", the virus has also been called "Norwalk-like virus", "small, round-structured viruses" (SRSVs), Spencer flu, and "Snow Mountain virus".[89] Common names of the illness caused by noroviruses still in use include "Roskilde illness", "winter vomiting disease",[90] "winter vomiting bug",[91][92] "viral gastroenteritis", and "acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis".[53]
See also
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External links
- Norovirus (vomiting bug) NHS Norovirus infections
- Global network and database noroviruses
- CDC Viral Gastroenteritis FAQs: Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Food Illness Fact Sheet
- "Norovirus in Healthcare Facilities Fact Sheet", CDC, released December 21, 2006
- tips from CDC for cruise vacationers
- Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR): Caliciviridae Archived 2019-09-13 at the Wayback Machine
- 3D macromolecular structures of Noroviruses from the EM Data Bank (EMDB)
- Viralzone: Norovirus
- ICTV Report: Caliciviridae