North Carolina-class battleship

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Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm) mounted during the war had been removed, while more modern radars had been mounted on its fore and main masts.[1]
Class overview
NameNorth Carolina-class battleship
Builders
Operators United States Navy
Preceded by
Succeeded bySouth Dakota class
Built1937–1941
In service1941–1947[2][3]
Completed2
Retired2
Preserved1
General characteristics
Class and typeFast battleship
Displacement
  • 36,600 long tons (37,187 t) (standard)
  • 44,800 long tons (45,519 t) (full load)
Length728 ft 8.625 in (222.113 m) overall
Beam108 ft 3.875 in (33.017 m) maximum
Draft35 ft 6 in (10.820 m) maximum
Installed power
Propulsion
  • four sets of
    geared turbines
  • 4 × screws
Speed1941: 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph)[7]
Endurance17,450 nmi (20,080 mi; 32,320 km) at 15 knots (17 mph; 28 km/h)[7]
Crew
  • 108 officers
  • 1,772 men[8]
Sensors and
processing systems		See the "Electronics" section[9]
Armament
Armor
Aircraft carried

The North Carolina class were a pair of fast battleships, North Carolina and Washington, built for the United States Navy in the late 1930s and early 1940s.

In planning a new battleship class in the 1930s, the US Navy was heavily constrained by international treaty limitations, which included a requirement that all new capital ships have a standard displacement of under 35,000 LT (35,600 t). This restriction meant that the navy could not construct a ship with the firepower, armor, and speed that they desired, and the balancing uncertainty that resulted meant that the navy considered fifty widely varying designs.

Eventually, the

16-inch (406 mm)/45 caliber Mark 6 guns
.

Both North Carolina and Washington saw extensive service during the Second World War in a variety of roles, primarily in the

fast carrier task forces, such as during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and conducted shore bombardments. Washington also participated in a surface engagement, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, where its radar-directed main batteries fatally damaged the Japanese battleship Kirishima. Both battleships were damaged during the war, with North Carolina taking a torpedo hit in 1942 and Washington colliding with Indiana in 1944. After the end of the war, both ships remained in commission for a brief time before being laid up in reserve. In the early 1960s, North Carolina was sold to the state of North Carolina as a museum ship, and Washington was broken up
for scrap.

Background

After the end of the

8-8 standard of eight battleships and eight battlecruisers or cruisers with the Nagato, Tosa, Amagi, Kii and Number 13 classes. Two ships from these designs were to be laid down per year until 1928.[11]

With the staggering costs associated with such programs, the United States' Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes invited delegations from the major maritime powers—France, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom—to come together in Washington, D.C. to discuss, and hopefully end, the naval arms race. The subsequent Washington Naval Conference resulted in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty. Along with many other provisions, it limited all future battleships to a standard displacement of 35,000 long tons (36,000 t) and a maximum gun caliber of 16 inches. It also decreed that the five countries could not construct another capital ship for ten years and could not replace any ship that survived the treaty until it was at least twenty years old. The 1936 Second London Naval Treaty kept many of the Washington treaty's requirements but restricted gun size on new warships to 14 inches.[12][13]

The treaties heavily influenced the design of the North Carolina class, as can be attested to in the long quest to find a ship that incorporated everything the US Navy considered necessary while remaining under 35,000 long tons.[14]

Design

Early

A large battleship steams through choppy seas. Three floatplanes are located on the stern.
North Carolina seen from the air on 17 April 1942

The General Board began preparations for a new class of battleships in May–July 1935, and three design studies were submitted to them. "A" would be 32,150 long tons (32,666 t) armed with nine 14-inch (356 mm) guns in triple turrets, all forward of the bridge; capable of 30 knots; and armored against 14-inch shells. "B" and "C" would both be over 36,000 long tons (37,000 t), able to reach 30.5 kn (56.5 km/h; 35.1 mph), and armored against 14-inch shells. The major difference between the two was the planned main battery, as "B" had twelve 14-inch guns in triple turrets, while "C" had eight 16-inch/45-caliber guns in dual turrets. "A" was the only one to remain within the 35,000-ton displacement limit set in the Washington Naval Treaty and reaffirmed in the Second London Naval Treaty. When the Bureau of Ordnance introduced a "super-heavy" 16-inch shell, the ships were redesigned in an attempt to provide protection against it, but this introduced severe weight problems; two of the designs were nearly 5,000 long tons (5,100 t) over the treaty limit.[15][B]

Although these original three studies were all "fast" battleships, the General Board was not committed to the higher maximum speeds. It posed questions to the Naval War College, asking for their opinion as to whether the new class should be a "conventional" 23-knot (43 km/h; 26 mph) ship with an eight-nine, 16-inch main battery, or rather one akin to "A", "B" or "C".[16]

Five more design studies were produced in late September 1935, which had characteristics of 23–30.5 knots, eight or nine 14- or 16-inch guns, and a standard displacement between 31,500 and 40,500 long tons (32,000 and 41,100 t). Designs "D" and "E" were attempts at fast battleships with 16-inch guns and protections against the same, but their displacement was greater than the Washington Naval Treaty allowed. Design "F" was a radical attempt at a hybrid battleship-carrier, with three catapults mounted

floats used to land, nothing came of the design. Designs "G" and "H" were slower 23-knot ships with nine 14-inch guns; in particular, "H" was thought to be a very well balanced design by the Preliminary Design section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair. However, the General Board finally decided to use faster ships, which "G" and "H" were not.[17]

These studies demonstrated the difficulty the designers faced with a displacement of 35,000 tons. They could choose a faster ship, able to steam at 30 knots, but that would force them to mount a lighter armament and armor than contemporary foreign battleships. Alternatively, they could choose a lower maximum speed and mount heavier guns, but fitting in adequate protection against newer 16-inch guns would be extremely difficult. The Preliminary Design section drew up five more studies in October, based upon "A" with additional armor or a scaled-down "B"; all used 14-inch guns and called for at least 30 knots. Two called for four turrets, but they would be too heavy and mount less armor. Another, "K," would have a 15-inch (380 mm)

immune zone against the United States' super-heavy 14-inch shell. While "K" was liked by the naval constructors, its designed standard displacement of 35,000 tons left little room for error, modifications, or improvements . The final two designs, "L" and "M," would use quadruple turrets to save weight (similar to the French Dunkerque) while still mounting 12 guns.[18]

Many officers in the United States Navy supported the construction of three or four fast battleships for carrier escorts and to counter Japan's

Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William Standley, the president of the Naval War College Admiral William S. Pye, a small majority (9–7) of senior officers at sea, and five of six line officers engaged in strategic planning as part of the War Plans Division, although at least one officer believed that an aerial attack would also be capable of sinking the Kongōs. With the above recommendations, the General Board selected "K" to undergo further development.[19]

Final

Six large guns in two turrets are aimed directly forward; the far trio are elevated extremely high and have a large amount of smoke emanating from them
North Carolina fires a three-gun salvo from its number one turret

At least 35 different final designs were proposed. All numbered with

standard displacement. In this case, even though there was designed storage room for 100 shells per main battery gun and an extra 100 rounds, the weight of the rounds did not figure toward the treaty-mandated limit.[20]

These final designs varied greatly in everything but their standard displacements and speeds. Just one was over the treaty displacement limit; every other design called for 35,000 long tons. Only five planned for a top speed of under 27 kn (50 km/h; 31 mph); of those, only one was lower than 26.5 kn (49.1 km/h): "VII", with 22 kn (41 km/h). "VII" returned to a lower speed to obtain more firepower (twelve 14-inch guns in triple turrets) and protection; as such, the design called for only 50,000 

kW)[C] and a length of only 640 ft (200 m). Most other plans called for 710 ft (220 m) or 725 ft (221 m), although a few had lengths between 660 ft (200 m) and 690 ft (210 m). Several different gun mountings were examined, including eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve 14-inch guns; eight 14-inch guns in two quadruple turrets, and even one design with two quadruple 16-inch guns.[22]

One specific design, "XVI," was a 27-knot (50 km/h), 714 ft-long (218 m) ship with twelve 14-inch guns, a 11.2-inch (284.5 mm) belt, and a deck 5.1 to 5.6-inches (129.5 to 142.2 mm) thick. Produced on 20 August 1936, the Bureau of Ordnance found many problems in it. For example, model tests showed that at high speeds, waves generated by the hull would leave certain lower parts of the ship uncovered by water or adequate armor, including around the explosive magazines, and the Bureau believed that hits around this part of the hull were easily possible when fighting at ranges between 20,000 and 30,000 yd (9.9 and 14.8 nmi; 18 and 27 km). Other problems included the design's defense against aircraft-dropped bombs, as the Bureau thought the formula used to calculate its effectiveness was not realistic, and the tapering of a fore bulkhead below the waterline could worsen underwater shell hits because the mostly unarmored bow could easily be penetrated. The proposed solutions for these issues were all impractical: added patches of armor around the magazines could neutralize the effectiveness of the ship's torpedo-defense system, and deepening the belt near the bow and stern would put the ships over the 35,000 long ton limit. The General Board detested this design, saying it was "not ... a true battleship" due to its speed and armor problems.[23]

To address these problems, a final set of designs was presented by the Preliminary Design section in October 1936. Designated "XVI-B" through "XVI-D," they were all modifications of the "XVI" plan. These added an extra 11 feet (3.4 m) of length to "XVI" for greater speed, but the resulting weight increase meant that only eleven 14-inch guns could be mounted with a thin 10.1-inch (260 mm) belt. Another gun could be traded for a 13.5-inch (342.9 mm) belt, and yet another could be swapped for more speed and an extra tenth of an inch of belt armor; this became design "XVI-C". The General Board liked "XVI-C" very much, seeing in it a ship that had enough protection to fight—and survive—in a

commerce raiding groups.[24]

However, one member of the Board, Admiral Joseph Reeves—one of the principal developers of the United States' aircraft carrier strategy—disliked "XVI-C" because he believed that it was not fast enough to work with the 33-knot (61 km/h; 38 mph) fast carriers, and it was not powerful enough to justify its cost. Instead, he advocated a development of the previously rejected "XVI", adding additional underwater protection and patches of armor within the ship to make the magazines immune to above- and below-water shell hits from 19,000 yd (9.4 nmi; 17 km) and beyond. The immune zone's outer limit was increased from 28,200 yd (13.9 nmi; 25.8 km) to 30,000 yd (15 nmi; 27 km). After further revisions, Reeves went to Standley, the Chief of Naval Operations, who approved "XVI" in its newly modified form over the hopes of the General Board, who still thought that "XVI-C" should be built. Standley's only addition to the characteristics was to be able to switch from quadruple 14-inch to triple 16 in (406 mm) turrets if the "escalator clause" in the Second London Naval Treaty was invoked.[25][26][27]

With these parameters now set, "XVI" would become the basis of the North Carolina class' as-built design despite additional back and forth over the design's final particulars. These included an increase in armor; something allowed by the finding of more on-paper weight savings; the

armor's slope was increased from 10° to 13°, and eventually settled at 15°; a months-long debate on the propulsion machinery's layout was finally concluded, and other minor changes.[28]

The "escalator clause"

The point of this rather long and erratic design history is that, although one might see the North Carolinas [as actually built] in several of these designs, that was not in fact so. The General Board was never entirely sure of what it was willing to give up to achieve some kind of ship within the treaty-limited displacement. [...] The fast capital ship with nine guns, and a speed of 30 knots, yet having good protection, was ultimately rejected in favor of a ship that sacrificed both speed and protection for firepower, a combination unprecedented in American capital ship development.[29]

—Naval historian Norman Friedman

Although the Second London Naval Treaty stipulated that warship guns could be no larger than 14 inches, a so-called "escalator clause" was included at the urging of American negotiators in case any country that had signed the Washington Naval Treaty refused to adhere to this new limit. The provision allowed signatory countries of the Second London Treaty—France, the United Kingdom and the United States—to raise the limit from 14 to 16 inches if Japan or Italy still refused to sign after 1 April 1937. When figuring potential configurations for the North Carolinas, designers focused most of their planning on 14-inch weaponry; Standley's requirement meant that a switch from 14- to 16-inch, even after the ships' keels had been laid, was possible. Japan formally rejected the 14-inch limit on 27 March 1937, meaning that the "escalator clause" could be invoked. There were hurdles that still needed to be overcome, though: Roosevelt was under heavy political pressure and, as a result, was reluctant to allow the 16-inch gun.[30][D]

I am not willing that the United States be the first naval power to adopt the 16 in. gun. ... Because of the international importance of the United States not being the first to change the principles laid down in the Washington and London Treaties, it seems to me that the plans for the two new battleships should contemplate the ... 14-inch gun.[31]

Admiral Reeves also came out strongly in favor of the larger weapon. In a two-page letter to Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson and indirectly to Roosevelt, Reeves argued that the 16-inch gun's significantly greater armor penetration was of paramount importance, drawing examples from the First World War's Battle of Jutland, where some battleships were able to survive ten or twenty hits from large guns, but other battlecruisers were blown up in three to seven hits because the shells were able to cut through the armor protecting magazines and turrets. Reeves also argued that the larger gun would favor the "indirect method" of shooting then being developed, where airplanes would be used to relay targeting information to allied battleships so that they could bombard targets that were out of their sight or over the horizon, because new battleships being built by foreign powers would have more armor. Reeves believed that if the 14-inch gun was adopted, it would not be able to penetrate this larger amount of protection, whereas the 16-inch would be able to break through.[32]

In a final vain attempt, Roosevelt's Secretary of State Cordell Hull sent a telegram on 4 June to the Ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew instructing him that the United States would still accept a cap of 14-inch guns if he could get Japan to as well. The Japanese replied that they could not accept this unless the number of battleships was also limited; they wanted the United States and the United Kingdom to agree to having an equal number of battleships with Japan, but this was a condition that the two countries refused to accept. On 24 June, the two North Carolinas were ordered with the 14-inch weapons, but on 10 July, Roosevelt directed that they be armed with triple 16-inch instead.[33][E]

Selected proposed designs
  • A line drawing of a ship with three gun turrets on the centerline forward, a tall superstructure, and a large funnel at the rear.
    The 32,250-long-ton (32,770 t) design "A" was one of the first proposals. Unlike "B" and "C", it was far below the treaty-mandated limit of 35,000–tons. It would have carried nine 14-inch guns in its main battery; although all of the turrets were forward of the superstructure, the guns could still fire forward provided that they were elevated to 4.5 degrees or more. The secondary battery planned was twelve 5-inch (127 mm) were unusually arranged in triple mounts.[35]
  • A line drawing of a ship with two stern gun turrets, both on the centerline, and catapults and a crane forward for aircraft
    "F" was an attempt to create a viable combination of an aircraft carrier and a battleship. With regards to the treaty limits, the design had an extremely comfortable margin with a standard displacement of 31,750 long tons (32,260 t). Three
    superfiring turrets would be mounted aft, both holding four 14-in guns.[36]
  • A line drawing of a ship with four gun turrets—two mounted each fore and aft—a large superstructure with two high masts, and a catapult over the third turret.
    "VII" harked back to the days of the slow battleships; with a top speed of 22 knots (25 mph; 41 km/h), it would have been only 1 knot (1.2 mph; 1.9 km/h) faster than the old "
    "standard" battleships. The weight gained from reducing the speed was added back in firepower and protection: "VII" would have had twelve 14-inch/50 caliber guns in four triple turrets and an immune zone against its own 14-inch gun between 21,400 and 30,000 yd (11 and 15 nmi; 20 and 27 km).[37]
  • A line drawing of a ship that has three quadruple gun turrets, two in front and one in the rear. In between the turrets are the large conning tower, a tall mast, and a single large smoke stack.
    "XVI" was one of the final proposals; after "XVI-C" was rejected, a modified version of this design was chosen for the North Carolinas. There were a few major differences between this and the final plan. For example, all exhaust was eventually trunked into two funnels as opposed to one, and the
    5-inch/38 caliber secondary battery was composed of all dual-mounted guns (no single).[24]

Specifications

General characteristics

The North Carolina was 713 feet 5.25 inches (217.456 m) long at the waterline and 728 feet 8.625 inches (222.113 m) long overall. The maximum beam was 108 feet 3.875 inches (33.017 m) while waterline beam was 104 feet 6 inches (31.85 m) due to the inclination of the armor belt. In 1942, the standard displacement was 36,600 long tons (37,200 t) while full load displacement was 44,800 long tons (45,500 t), while maximum draft was 35 feet 6 inches (10.82 m). At design combat displacement of 42,329 long tons (43,008 t), the mean draft was 31 feet 7.313 inches (9.635 m) and (GM) metacentric height was 8.31 feet (2.53 m). As designed, the crew complement was 1,880 with 108 officers and 1,772 enlisted. By 1945, the considerable increase in anti-aircraft armament and their crew accommodations had increased full load displacement to 46,700 long tons (47,400 t), while crew complement increased to 2,339 with 144 officers and 2,195 enlisted. After the end of World War II, the crew complement was reduced to 1,774.[38][39]

The North Carolina class hull feature a bulbous bow and had an unusual stern design for the time by placing the two inboard propulsion shafts in skegs. This was theorized to improve flow conditions to the propellers. Initial model basin testing for various stern configurations suggested that the skeg arrangement could reduce resistance, although later testing during the design process of the Montana-class battleship would indicate an increase in drag. The skegs improved the structural strength of the stern by acting as girders and also provided structural continuity for the torpedo bulkheads. However, the skegs also contributed to severe vibration problems with the class that required extensive testing and modifications to mitigate. The problem was particularly acute near the aft main battery director, which required additional reinforcing braces due to the vibrations. Nevertheless, skegs would be improved and incorporated in the designs of all subsequent American battleships, with vibration problems largely eliminated on the Iowa class battleships.[40]

Armament

The turret held three guns; below the gun deck were the turret floor, the machinery floor, and two levels of magazines for the shells and propellant charges. Two centrally located ammunition hoists carried the ordnance from the magazines to the gun deck.
A cut-away diagram of the 16-inch turrets on board the North Carolina class

North Carolina and Washington were principally armed with nine

Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm.[41]

Main battery

Mounted on both the North Carolina class and the follow-up

armor-piercing (AP) shell developed by the Bureau of Ordnance. At full charge with a brand-new gun, the heavy shell would be expelled at a muzzle velocity of 2,300 ft/s (700 m/s).[42] At a reduced charge, the same shell would be fired at 1,800 ft/s (550 m/s). Barrel life—the approximate number of rounds a gun could fire before needing to be relined or replaced—was 395 shells when using AP, although if only practice shells were used this figure was significantly higher: 2,860. Turning at 4 degrees a second, each turret could train to 150 degrees on either side of the ship.[43] The guns could be elevated to a maximum inclination of 45 degrees; turrets one and three could depress to −2 degrees, but due to its superfiring position, the guns on turret two could only depress to 0 degrees.[44]

Each gun was 736 in (18,700 mm) long overall; its

high capacity (HC) shell would travel 40,180 yards (20 nautical miles; 37 kilometres).[44] The guns weighed 85.85 long tons (192,300 lb; 87,230 kg) not including the breech; the turrets weighed 1,403–1,437 long tons (3,143,000–3,219,000 lb; 1,426,000–1,460,000 kg).[44]

When firing the same shell, the 16-inch/45 Mark 6 had a slight advantage over the

16-inch/50 Mark 7 when hitting deck armor—a shell from a 45 cal gun would be slower, meaning that it would have a steeper trajectory as it descended.[43] At 36,000 yards (18 nautical miles; 33 kilometres), a shell from a 45 cal would strike a ship at an angle of 47.5 degrees, as opposed to 38 degrees with the 50 cal.[45]

Secondary battery

The North Carolinas carried ten Mark 28 Mod 0 enclosed base ring mounts, each supporting twin

ship type and many smaller warships constructed between 1934 and 1945. They were considered to be "highly reliable, robust and accurate" by the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.[46]

The 5-inch/38 functioned as a

5-inch/25 anti-air gun.[46]

Each 5-inch/38 weighed almost 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) without the breech. The entire mount weighed 156,295 pounds (70,894 kilograms). It was 223.8 in (5,680 mm) long overall, had a bore length of 190 in (4,800 mm), and had a rifling length of 157.2 in (3,990 mm). The gun could fire shells at about 2,500–2,600 ft/s (760–790 m/s); about 4,600 could be fired before the barrel needed to be replaced. Minimum and maximum elevations were −15 and 85 degrees, respectively. The guns' elevation could be raised or lowered at about 15 degrees per second. Loading was possible at any elevation. The mounts closest to the bow and stern could aim from −150 to 150 degrees; the others were restricted to −80 to 80 degrees. They could be turned at about 25 degrees per second.[46]

Smaller weaponry

Bofors guns aboard Hornet
in 1945

The remaining weaponry on board the two North Carolinas was composed of differing numbers of 1.1"/75 caliber guns, .50 caliber machine guns, Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm cannons. Although the ships were originally designed to carry only four quadruple 1.1 in and twelve .50 caliber, this was greatly increased and upgraded during the war.[47]

On both ships, two more quadruple sets of 1.1 in guns were added in place of two searchlights amidships. After it was torpedoed in 1942, North Carolina had these removed and ten quadruple sets of 40 mm guns added. Fourteen were present by June 1943, while a fifteenth mount was added on top of the third main turret that November. Washington retained its six 1.1 in quads until the middle of 1943, when ten quad 40 mm guns replaced them. By August, it had fifteen. The two ships carried these through to the close of the war.[47]

The .50 caliber machine guns did not have the range or power needed to combat modern aircraft and were scheduled for replacement by equal numbers of 20 mm guns, but nothing immediately came of the proposal. In fact, both North Carolina and Washington carried 20 mm and .50 caliber guns for most of 1942. In April, North Carolina had, respectively, forty and twelve, while Washington had twenty and twelve. Two months later, the number of 20 mm guns remained the same, but twelve .50 caliber guns had been added. By September, Washington had twenty more 20 mm guns added, for a total of forty, but five were removed—along with all of the .50 caliber guns—shortly thereafter when two quadruple sets of 1.1 in guns were added. In its refit after being torpedoed, North Carolina had an additional six 20 mm guns added and all of its .50 caliber weapons removed. Washington had sixty-four 20 mm weapons by April 1943, prior to one single mount being replaced by a quadruple mount, and North Carolina had fifty-three by March 1944. In April 1945, North Carolina was assigned to have fifty-six 20 mm, while Washington was assigned seventy-five. In August 1945, the ships both had eight twin 20 mm mounts; North Carolina also carried twenty single, while Washington carried one quad and sixty-three single.[48]

Electronics

The tower is dominated by a large radar set; two long arms protrude from the side of the tower.
Washington's tower foremast, seen on 18 August 1942 at the New York Navy Yard; note the SG surface search radar located on the forward face

Both North Carolina and Washington, designed prior to

Mark 38 directors and were originally fitted with a CXAM air search, two Mark 3s and three Mark 4 secondary armament.[9]

By November 1942, North Carolina had an additional Mark 4 and a SG surface search radar added. The normal battleship configuration was present aboard North Carolina in April 1944, with SK and SG radars (air and surface search, respectively), a backup SG, and Mark 8s to direct its main battery. All of the Mark 4s remained for the secondary battery, and one of the older Mark 3s was still present, possibly as a backup for the Mark 8s. An SK-2 dish replaced the older SK radar and Mark 12s and 22s superseded the Mark 4s in September of that year. Aside from never receiving an SK-2, Washington was the recipient of similar upgrades.[9]

Both ships underwent extensive refits near the end or after the war. North Carolina received a secondary air search set (SR) and a SCR-720 zenith search radar on the forward funnel. At the end of the war, it had an SP surface-search, a SK-2 air-search, a Mark 38 main battery fire control system with Mark 13 and 27 radars, a Mark 37 secondary battery fire control system with Mark 12, 22 and 32 radars, and a Mark 57 smaller weaponry fire control system, with a Mark 34 radar. In March 1946, Washington had a SK fore and a SR aft, a SG both fore and aft, and a TDY jammer (which could scramble radar on other ships).[9][49]

Propulsion

A cavernous steel room, with two large rectangular boilers inside; a number of men are working on the machines.
North Carolina's No. 2 machinery space under construction, seen from the port side of the ship on 16 January 1939; the No. 4 boiler has just been installed

The ships in the North Carolina class were equipped with four General Electric geared turbines and eight Babcock & Wilcox three-drum express type boilers. The ships' powerplant incorporated several recent developments in turbine equipment, including double helical reduction gears and high-pressure steam technology. North Carolina's boilers supplied steam at 575 psi (3,960 kPa) and as hot as 850 °F (454 °C).[F] To meet the design requirement of 27 kn (50 km/h; 31 mph), the engine system was originally designed to supply 115,000 shp (85,755 kW), but the new technologies increased this output to 121,000 shp (90,000 kW). Despite this increase, the maximum speed for the ships did not change, since the modifications to the powerplant were incorporated later in the design process. The turbines that had already been installed could not fully take advantage of the higher pressure and temperature steam, and so the level of efficiency was not as high as it should have been. When going astern, the engines provided 32,000 shp (24,000 kW).[7][50]

The engine system was divided into four engine rooms, all on the centerline. Each room contained a turbine and two boilers, without any division between the boilers and turbines. This was done to limit the risk of capsizing should the ship sustain heavy flooding in the engine rooms. The engine rooms alternated in their layout: the first and third engine rooms were arranged with the turbine on the starboard side and its corresponding boilers on the port, this was reversed in the second and fourth rooms. The forward-most engine room powered the starboard outer shaft, the second turbine drove the outer screw on the port side, the third engine supplied power to the inner starboard propeller, and the fourth turbine drove the port-side inner screw. All four screws had four blades; the two outer propellers were 15 ft 4 in (4.67 m) in diameter and the inner pair were 16 ft 7.5 in (5.067 m) wide. Steering was controlled by a pair of rudders.[7][50]

At the time of their commissioning, the ships had a top speed of 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph), though by 1945, with the addition of other equipment, such as anti-aircraft weaponry, their maximum speed was reduced to 26.8 knots (49.6 km/h; 30.8 mph). The increases in weight also reduced the ships' cruising range. In 1941, the ships could steam for 17,450 nautical miles (32,320 km; 20,080 mi) at a cruising speed of 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph); by 1945, the range at that speed was reduced to 16,320 nmi (30,220 km; 18,780 mi). At 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph), the range was considerably lower, at 5,740 nmi (10,630 km; 6,610 mi).[7]

Electrical power was supplied by eight generators. Four were turbo-generators designed for naval use; these provided 1,250 

kilowatts each. The other four were diesel generators that supplied 850 kilowatts each. Two smaller diesel generators—each provided 200 kilowatts—supplied emergency power should the main system be damaged. Total electrical output was 8,400 kilowatts, not including the emergency generators, at 450 volts on an alternating current.[7]

Armor

A large object is being maneuvered by crane into a large metal circle
One of Washington's main gun turrets is installed upon the ship; note how thick the barbette is, ranging from 11.5 to 16 inches (292–406 mm)

The North Carolina class incorporated "

Special Treatment Steel (STS). This tapered down to 6-inch (152 mm) on the lower edge of the belt. The ships had three armored decks; their main deck was 1.45-inch (37 mm) thick. The second, thickest deck was 3.6-inch (91 mm) of Class B armor laminated on 1.4-inch (36 mm) STS for a total of 5-inch (127 mm). In the outboard sections of the hull the plating was 4.1-inch (104 mm) Class B laminated on 1.4-inch (36 mm) STS. The third and thinnest deck was 0.62-inch (16 mm) thick inboard, and .75-inch (19 mm) outboard. The first deck was designed to cause delay-fuzed projectiles to detonate, while the thicker second deck would protect the ships' internals. The third deck was intended to protect against shell splinters that might have penetrated the second deck; it also acted as the upper support for the torpedo bulkheads. The conning tower was connected to the armored citadel by a 14-inch (356 mm) thick communications tube. Armor thickness for the conning tower itself ranged from 16 inches (406 mm) on both sides to 14.7 inches (373 mm) on the front and rear. The roof was 7 inches (178 mm) thick and the bottom was 3.9 inches (99 mm) thick.[51][52]

The main battery turrets were heavily armored: the turret faces were 16-inch (406 mm) thick, the sides were 9-inch (229 mm) thick, the rear sides were 11.8-inch (300 mm) thick, and the roofs were 7-inch (178 mm) thick. Sixteen–inch-thick armor was the maximum width factories were able to produce at the time of the ships' design; by 1939, however, it was possible to create 18-inch (457 mm)-thick plates. These were not installed because it was estimated that the conversion would delay completion of the ships by 6 to 8 months. The barbettes that held the turrets were also strongly protected. The front portion was 14.7 inches (373 mm), the sides increased to 16 in, and the rear portion reduced to 11.5-inch (292 mm). The 5-inch gun turrets, along with their ammunition magazines, were armored with 1.95-inch (50 mm) STS plates.[53]

The side protection system incorporated five compartments divided by torpedo bulkheads and a large

TNT. Underwater protection was rounded out by a triple bottom that was 5.75 ft (2 m) deep. The bottom layer was 3 ft (1 m) thick and was kept filled with fluid, while the upper 2.75-foot (1 m) thick layer was kept empty. The triple bottom was also heavily subdivided to prevent catastrophic flooding should the upper layer be penetrated.[54]

Service

fitting out

Construction

Two ships, each to cost about

New York Shipbuilding and Newport News Shipbuilding. The other two, the New York Naval Shipyard and Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, were run by the government. When bids were reviewed, the privately run shipyards' submissions ranged from $46 to 50 million, while their government counterparts came in at $37 million. Newport News was unique among these in refusing any fixed monetary value in favor of a "cost-plus 3+1⁄2%" price, but this led to the rejection of their bid out of hand.[55]

The bids from private companies were heavily influenced by the legislation of the

Walsh–Healey Public Contracts Act specified a minimum wage and required working conditions for workers. The latter act greatly affected the ability of the navy to acquire steel, as the text of the law caused friction between executives in the industry, who greatly disliked the forty-hour work week and minimum wage requirements, and their workers—who themselves were embroiled in a separate dispute pitting the union of the skilled workers, the American Federation of Labor, against the union of the unskilled, the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Amid the unrest, the navy ran into difficulties trying to acquire 18 million pounds of steel to build six destroyers and three submarines; many more pounds than this would be needed for the new battleships.[56]

The private shipyards, however, had their own labor problems, so much so that one author described the navy's issues as "minimal" compared to their shipbuilding counterparts. This increased the price of the battleships to $60 million each, so the Bureau of Steam Engineering and Bureau of Construction and Repair recommended to their superiors that the $37 million tenders from the two navy yards be accepted. This was confirmed by Roosevelt, as the private shipyards' bids were seen as unjustly inflated. The contracts for North Carolina and Washington—names had been officially chosen on 3 May 1937—were sent to the New York and Philadelphia yards, respectively, on 24 June 1937. Shortly after this announcement, Roosevelt was bombarded with heavy lobbying from citizens and politicians from Camden and the state of New Jersey, in an ultimately futile attempt to have the construction of North Carolina shifted to Camden's New York Shipbuilding; such a contract would keep many men employed in that area. Roosevelt refused, saying that the disparity in price was too great. Instead, the company was awarded two destroyer tenders in December 1937, Dixie and Prairie.[55][56]

Construction of the North Carolina class was slowed by the aforementioned material issues, the changes made to the basic design after this date—namely the substitution of 16-inch for 14-inch guns—and the need to add both length and strength to the slipways already present in the navy yards. Increased use of welding was proposed as a possible way to reduce weight and bolster the structural design, as it could have reduced the ships' structural weight by 10%, but it was used in only about 30% of the ship. The costs associated with welding and an increase in the time of construction made it impractical.[57]

North Carolina

propeller shafts. A problem shared with its sister Washington and some other ships like Atlanta, it was only cured after different propellers were tested aboard North Carolina, including four-bladed and cut-down versions of the original three-bladed. This testing required it to be at sea, and the many resulting trips out of New York Harbor to the Atlantic Ocean caused it to be nicknamed "The Showboat".[57][58][59][60]

After a

light carrier Ryūjō, a strike group from a different force, formed around the fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku, attacked TF 16. In an intense eight-minute battle, North Carolina shot down 7–14 aircraft and was relatively undamaged, though there were seven near-misses and one crewman was killed by strafing. Enterprise took three bomb hits.[58]

The explosive force tore and dished in the steel side plating. A wooden scaffold has been erected to the right for repair work.
I-19's torpedo opened a gaping hole in North Carolina's hull

North Carolina then joined the carrier

torpedo bulge added outside their magazines. However, the new Bureau of Ships opposed this on the basis that the system performed as it was supposed to; in any case, no modifications were made.[58][61][62][63]

Repaired and refitted at the facilities in

Makin, Tarawa and Abemama. On 1–8 December it bombarded Nauru before returning to carrier screening; it accompanied Bunker Hill while that carrier launched attacks on Kavieng and New Ireland.[58][64]

Joining

Marianas; as part of these, North Carolina used its main battery to bombard Saipan and Tanapag.[58][64]

In late June, North Carolina was one of the American ships which took part in the so-called "

invasion of Iwo Jima, the battleship provided bombardment support for troops ashore.[58][65]

Red and yellow fireworks fill the sky, as seen from the deck of the ship. The main guns loom directly overhead.
Fireworks exploding over North Carolina in 2008, during ceremonies commemorating the commissioning of the submarine North Carolina (SSN-777)

During the

assault on Okinawa, North Carolina screened carriers and bombarded targets ashore. Although it was able to shoot down three kamikazes on 6 April, it was also struck by a 5-inch (127 mm) shell during that time in a friendly fire incident; three were killed and forty-four injured. The battleship shot down a plane on the 7th and two on the 17th. After receiving another overhaul from 9 May to 28 June, this one in the naval yard at Pearl Harbor, North Carolina operated as both a carrier escort and shore bombardier for the remainder of the war. Of note was a 17 July bombardment of the industrial area in Hitachi, Ibaraki in company with fellow battleships Alabama, Missouri, Wisconsin and HMS King George V, along with smaller warships.[58][66]

In August, members of North Carolina's crew and

Marine contingent were sent ashore to assist in occupying Japan. After the official surrender, these men were brought back aboard and the battleship sailed to Okinawa. As part of Operation "Magic Carpet", soldiers were embarked to be returned to the United States. Passing through the locks of Panama Canal on 8 October, it weighed anchor in Boston on the 17th. After an overhaul in the New York Naval Yard, it participated in exercises off New England before beginning a midshipman training cruise in the Caribbean.[58]

North Carolina was

decommissioned in Bayonne, New Jersey on 27 June 1947; it remained in the reserve fleet in until 1 June 1960, when it was struck from the Naval Vessel Register. Instead of the scrapping that faced most of the United States' battleships, North Carolina was sold to the state of North Carolina for $250,000 on 8 August 1961 to be a museum ship. It was dedicated in Wilmington on 29 April 1962 as a memorial to the citizens of the state who died in the Second World War. Listed on the United States' National Register of Historic Places and designated as a National Historic Landmark on 1 January 1986, it remains there today, maintained by the USS North Carolina Battleship Commission.[2][58][67]

Washington

launch
of Washington on 1 June 1940

USS Washington (BB-56) was laid down on 14 June 1938, launched on 1 June 1940 and commissioned on 15 May 1941 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Although commissioned, its engine had not yet been run at full power—like its sister, Washington had major problems with longitudinal vibrations, which were only tempered after many tests conducted aboard North Carolina. The fixes made it possible to run builder's trials, which Washington did on 3 August 1941; loaded at about 44,400 long tons (45,100 t), the propulsion plant was run up to 123,850 shp (92,350 kW), and repeated the performance again in February 1942, achieving 127,100 and 120,000 shp (94,800 and 89,500 kW).[59][68][69]

In early 1942 Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox chose Washington as the flagship of Task Force 39. On 26 March 1942, Washington, along with Wasp, Wichita, Tuscaloosa and various smaller ships, sailed to bolster the British Home Fleet. During the voyage, Wilcox fell into the ocean; he was seen soon after by the destroyer Wilson, face down in the water, but due to rough seas they were unable to retrieve the body. It is not known what exactly happened; he could have simply been caught by a wave and washed overboard, but there has been speculation that he suffered a heart attack. The force reached the main anchorage of the Home Fleet, Scapa Flow, on 4 April.[68][69][70]

Washington and the other ships of TF 39 participated in exercises with the Home Fleet until late April. Along with certain British units, the task force departed the British Isles as TF 99. They escorted some of the Arctic convoys which were carrying vital cargo to the Soviet Union. While carrying out this duty, an accompanying British battleship, HMS King George V, accidentally rammed a destroyer, cutting it in two. Directly behind King George V, Washington passed through the same stretch of sea and received damage from exploding

King George VI of the United Kingdom inspected the battleship.[68][70][71]

OS2U Kingfisher
is in the background

Washington left the North Sea bound for the United States on 14 July with an escort of four destroyers; upon arrival at the New York Naval Yard on the 23rd, it was given a full overhaul which took a month to be completed. It set sail for the Panama Canal and the Pacific Ocean on 23 August and reached its destination,

intercept the Japanese force that night. The Japanese, composed of the fast battleship Kirishima, two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and nine destroyers, initially sank three US destroyers and inflicted significant topside damage to South Dakota. However, Washington remained undetected and at midnight fired on Kirishima from 5,800 yd (5 km; 3 nmi), point blank range for Washington's 16-inch/45-caliber guns.[72][73] Washington fired seventy-five 16-inch and one hundred and seven 5-inch rounds during the melee, scoring 20 main and seventeen secondary battery hits, knocking out Kirishima's steering and main battery and causing uncontrollable progressive flooding.[74] Kirishima capsized at 03:25 on the morning of 15 November 1942, with 212 crewmen lost.[75] Radar-directed fire from Washington's secondary battery also damaged destroyer Ayanami so severely it had to be scuttled. Soon after the battle, the Japanese began evacuating Guadalcanal.[68][76][77]

Until April 1943, Washington stayed near its base in

Taroa and Kwajalein. It also moved in to hit Kwajalein with its guns on 30 January.[68][78]

The bow of the ship, with several men standing aboard. A smaller warship is visible in the distance.
The severe damage done to Washington's bow after its collision with Indiana

Before dawn on 1 February, with the sky still shrouded in darkness, Washington collided with Indiana when the latter left formation to fuel four destroyers. Indiana had radioed that it was going to make a turn to port out of the formation, but soon after starting the turn, its captain ordered a reversal, back to starboard. About seven minutes later, it came into view of lookouts aboard Washington at a range of 1,000 yards (3,000 ft; 914 m). Although crews on both ships frantically tried to avoid the other, it was to no avail; Washington gave Indiana a glancing blow, scraping down a large aft portion of the ship's starboard side. Washington's fore end was severely damaged, with about 60 ft (18 m) of its bow hanging down and into the water. Ten men, six from Washington, were killed or listed as missing. After temporary reinforcements to the damaged section, it was forced to sail to Pearl Harbor to be fitted with a false bow to make possible a voyage to Puget Sound. Once there, it received a full overhaul, along with a new bow; this work lasted from March until April. Washington did not enter the war zone again until late May.[48][68][78][79]

Washington next participated in the

TF 58; on the 19th, with the attack of many aircraft, the Battle of the Philippine Sea began. Able to beat off the attacks, Washington refueled and continued escorting carriers until it formed a new task group with three battleships and escorts. After a lengthy stop at Enewetak Atoll, it supported troops assaulting Peleliu and Angaur before returning to screening duties. This duty lasted from 10 October to 17 February 1945.[68][80]

The battleship bombarded Iwo Jima from 19–22 February in support of the invasion there before escorting carriers which sent aircraft raids against Tokyo and targets on the island of

V-J Day and the subsequent formal ceremony aboard Missouri, so Washington received orders to voyage to Philadelphia, where it arrived on 17 October. Here it was modified to have an additional 145 bunks so it could participate in Operation Magic Carpet. Sailing to Southampton with a reduced crew of 84 officers and 835 crew, it brought 185 army officers and 1,479 enlisted men back to the United States; this was the only voyage it would make in support of the operation. The battleship was placed into reserve at Bayonne, New Jersey on 27 June 1947, after only a little more than six years of service. Washington was never reactivated. Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1960—exactly 21 years to the day since its launch—she was sold on 24 May 1961 to be scrapped.[3][68][80][81][82][G]

Post-war alteration proposals

A large gray warship plows through the sea, creating a large frothy wake.
Washington steaming at high speed in Puget Sound during post-overhaul trials, 10 September 1945

North Carolina and Washington remained in active duty in the years immediately after the war, possibly because their crew accommodations were more comfortable and less cramped than the four South Dakotas. The ships received alterations during this period; the Ship Characteristics Board (SCB) directed in June 1946 that four of the quadruple-mounted 40 mm guns be removed, though only two were actually taken off each ship. The 20 mm weapons were also reduced at some point so that both ships were decommissioned with sixteen twin mounts. North Carolina and Washington were decommissioned on 27 June 1947 and subsequently moved to the reserve fleet.[83]

In May 1954, SCB created a

Mark 56s. A month later, the SCB chairman voiced his belief that the North Carolinas and South Dakotas would be excellent additions to task forces—if they could be faster. The Bureau of Ships then considered and discarded designs that would move these ships at 31 kn (57 km/h; 36 mph), four knots faster than their current attainable speed. In order for a North Carolina to attain 31 knots, 240,000 shp (180,000 kW) would be required. This, in turn, would necessitate the installation of an extremely large power plant, one which would not fit into the ship even if the third turret was removed. If the outer external belt armor were removed, 216,000 shp (161,000 kW) would still be required. However, no matter if the belt was taken off or not, all of the hull form aft would have to be greatly modified to accept larger propellers. The last strike against the project was the high estimated cost of $40 million, which did not include the cost of activating battleships that had been out of commission for ten years.[84]

Later calculations proved that the North Carolinas could be lightened from 44,377 long tons to around 40,541 long tons (41,192 t), at which 210,000 shp would suffice. At the trial displacement figure of 38,400 long tons (39,000 t), even 186,000 shp (139,000 kW) would be enough; the 210,000 figure was derived from a 12.5% overestimation to account for a fouled bottom or bad weather. A similar power plant to the one used in the Iowa class (generating 212,000 shp (158,000 kW)) would be enough, and if the third turret was removed there would be no problems with weight, but there was not enough space within the North Carolinas. When compared, the current power plant measured 176 ft × 70 ft × 24 ft (53.6 m × 21.3 m × 7.3 m), but Iowa's was 256 ft × 72 ft × 26 ft (78.0 m × 21.9 m × 7.9 m). Lastly, there would be an issue with the propellers; the Iowa class' were 19 ft (5.8 m) wide, while the North Carolinas were 17 ft (5.2 m). In the end, no conversions were undertaken.[85]

Designs for helicopter carriers also contained a plan for a conversion of the North Carolinas. At a cost of $30,790,000, the ships would have been able to embark 28 helicopters, 1,880 troops, 530 long tons (540 t) of cargo and 200,000 US gal (760,000 L) of oil. All of the 16-inch and 5-inch guns would have been removed, though the number one turret would have remained so that weights added on the stern half of the ship could be balanced. In place, the ships would have received sixteen 3-inch guns in twin mounts. Displacement would be lowered slightly to a fully loaded weight of about 41,930 long tons (42,600 t), while speed would not have changed. It was estimated that the ships could serve for about fifteen to twenty years at a cost of about $440,000 a year for maintenance. However, it was found that a purpose-built helicopter carrier would be more economical, so the plans were shelved.[86]

Ships in class

List of North Carolina-class battleships
Ship name Hull no. Builder Laid down Launched Commissioned Decommissioned Fate
North Carolina BB-55
New York Naval Shipyard
 27 October 1937 13 June 1940 9 April 1941 27 June 1947 Struck 1 June 1960; museum ship since 29 April 1962 in Wilmington, North Carolina
Washington BB-56 Philadelphia Naval Shipyard 14 June 1938 1 June 1940 15 May 1941 27 June 1947 Struck 1 June 1960; sold for scrap, 24 May 1961

Notes

  1. ^ The Seahawk replaced the Kingfisher around the end of the war.[5]
  2. ^ This article uses Friedman's designations for the multitude of design proposals.
  3. ^ The next lowest were "X-A", "XI-A" and "XI-B", with 112,500 shp (83,900 kW).[21]
  4. ^ The political pressures were not just from within the United States. When rumors that the United States was going to adopt 16-inch guns reached Japan in January 1937, Tokyo newspapers had immediately printed them alongside drawings of American warships aiming their guns at Japan. In addition, if the use of the "escalator clause" touched off another international naval arms race—this one featuring larger and larger ships—the United States would find itself at a huge disadvantage in one of two ways. Either their battleships would be built to have a Panamax capability, rendering them inferior to the new ships of other nations, or they would be designed to be on par with the other nations' ships, meaning that they would have to sail around Cape Horn if they desired to reach the other side of the United States.[30]
  5. ^ This change meant that the Bureau of Construction and Repair had to modify the design of the North Carolinas to accommodate the larger and heavier weaponry. As part of this, the ship's longitudinal center of gravity had to be shifted forward; the solution was to move many internal components of the ship forward two frames, or 8 ft (2.4 m). Summations of all of the weights in the ship were not complete until October, and additional planning took until February, so the Secretary of the Navy authorized a one-month extension to the building period of both ships on 15 January 1942, moving the Bureau of Engineering's estimated date of completion to 1 February 1942.[34]
  6. ^ For comparative purposes, the boilers fitted to the most recently designed heavy cruisers provided steam at 300 psi (2,100 kPa) and 572 °F (300 °C).[50]
  7. ^ While the official Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships entry on Washington and Garzke and Dulin's United States Battleships state that the ship was sold on 24 May 1961, the Naval Vessel Register and the Miramar Ship Index give a date of 6 June 1961.[3][68][80][82]

Endnotes

  1. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 242
  2. ^ a b c "North Carolina" in the Naval Vessel Register.
  3. ^ a b c d "Washington" in the Naval Vessel Register
  4. ^ a b Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 62
  5. ^ a b c Whitley, Battleships, 293.
  6. ^ a b c d Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 64
  7. ^ a b c d e f Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 65
  8. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 66
  9. ^ a b c d Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 276
  10. ^ a b c Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 63
  11. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 181–182
  12. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 182, 243
  13. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 3, 6
  14. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 243
  15. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 244
  16. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 248
  17. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 246–250
  18. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 247, 250–251
  19. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 251–252
  20. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 252
  21. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 254–255
  22. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 254–255, 259
  23. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 256, 261–263
  24. ^ a b Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 263
  25. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 263, 265
  26. ^ McBride, "The Unstable Dynamics of a Strategic Technology," 416
  27. ^ "Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament"
  28. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 265–269
  29. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 262–263
  30. ^ a b Muir, "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones," 25
  31. ^ Letter from Roosevelt to Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson, 8 April 1937. President's Secretary File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. Hyde Park, New York. Quoted in Muir, "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones," 25.
  32. ^ Letter from Reeves to Swanson, 17 May 1937. President's Secretary File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. Hyde Park, New York. Reproduced in Muir, "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones," 26.
  33. ^ Muir, "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones," 28, 35
  34. ^ Muir, "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones," 28, 34
  35. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 244–245
  36. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 250
  37. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 258
  38. ^ a b Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 62–56
  39. ^ Washington's dimensions and displacement differ slightly from North Carolina's, with waterline length of 713 feet 8 inches (217.53 m) and overall length of 728 feet 11.625 inches (222.190 m). The 1945 full load was 45,370 long tons (46,100 t) and maximum draft was 34 feet 9 inches (10.59 m).[38]
  40. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 60
  41. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 276–277 and 447
  42. ^ Campbell Naval Weapons of World War Two, pp. 114, 117
  43. ^ a b DiGiulian, "16"/45 (40.6 cm) Mark 6"
  44. ^ a b c d Campbell Naval Weapons of World War Two, p. 117
  45. ^ Campbell Naval Weapons of World War Two, pp. 117–118
  46. ^ a b c d DiGiulian, 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12
  47. ^ a b Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 276–277
  48. ^ a b Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 277
  49. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 56
  50. ^ a b c Whitley, Battleships, 291
  51. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 52–53, 64
  52. ^ Whitley, Battleships, 290
  53. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 53–54
  54. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 54–55
  55. ^ a b Muir, "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones," 28
  56. ^ a b McBride, "The Unstable Dynamics of a Strategic Technology," 417–418
  57. ^ a b Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 35
  58. ^ a b c d e f g h i "North Carolina" in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
  59. ^ a b Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 274–275
  60. ^ "6112175" in the Miramar Ship Index
  61. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 277 and 279
  62. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 35, 38–39
  63. ^ Whitley, Battleships, 293–294
  64. ^ a b Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 39
  65. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 39–40
  66. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 40
  67. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 40–41
  68. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Washington" in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
  69. ^ a b Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 41
  70. ^ a b Whitley, Battleships, 295
  71. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 41 and 44
  72. ^ Schom, p. 424
  73. ^ Garzke and Dulin, p. 44
  74. ^ Lundgren, Robert. "Kirishima Damage Analysis" (PDF). www.navweapons.com. The Naval Technical Board. pp. 5–8. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  75. ^ Stille, p. 20
  76. ^ Whitley, Battleships, 296
  77. ^ Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 45–46
  78. ^ a b Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 46
  79. ^ "Marshall Islands Campaign," Naval History and Heritage Command
  80. ^ a b c Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 47
  81. ^ Whitley, Battleships, 297
  82. ^ a b "6112726" in the Miramar Ship Index
  83. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 389–390, 421
  84. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 397
  85. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 397–398
  86. ^ Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 401

References

Bibliography

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