North Sea Germanic

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North Sea Germanic
Ingvaeonic, Ingveonic,
Friesland to Jutland; today, worldwide
Linguistic classificationIndo-European
Subdivisions
Glottolognort3175
The distribution of the primary Germanic languages in Europe c. AD 1:
  North Germanic
  North Sea Germanic, or Ingvaeonic
  Weser–Rhine Germanic, or Istvaeonic
  Elbe Germanic, or Irminonic
  East Germanic †

North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic (

Old English, and Old Saxon
, and their descendants.

Ingvaeonic is named after the

areal changes
in relative unison.

The grouping was first proposed in Nordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by German linguist and philologist

Istvaeonic, from the Istvaeones, which developed into Franconian, and Irminonic, from the Irminones, which developed into Upper German.[3]

Characteristics

Broadly speaking, the changes that characterise the Ingvaeonic languages can be divided into two groups, those being changes that occurred after the split from Proto-Northwest-Germanic (Ingvaeonic B) and those preceding it (Ingvaeonic A).[4] Linguistic evidence for Ingvaeonic B observed in Old Frisian, Old English and Old Saxon is as follows:

  • The so-called Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law: converted *munþ "mouth" into *mų̄þ (compare Old English mūþ).[5]
  • Loss of the third-person reflexive pronouns[6]
  • The loss of person distinctions in plural forms of verbs, which reduced three forms into one form:[7] merged *habjum "we have" and *habēþ "you (plural) have" with *habją̄þ "they have"
  • Palatalisation of velar consonants before front vowels; while the Anglo-Frisian languages further develop these palatal consonants into continuants as in church, Old Saxon did undergo palatalisation as evidenced by forms like kiennan "know" and kiesur "emperor" (contrast German kennen, Kaiser) as well as ieldan "pay", similar to English yield.[8]
  • Lack of i-mutation in s/z-stem plurals; compare Anglian OE lombur "lambs" with OHG lembir[9]
  • The development of Class III weak verbs into a relic class consisting of four verbs (*sagjan "to say", *hugjan "to think", *habjan "to have", *libjan "to live")
  • The split of the Class II weak verb ending*-ōn into *-ōjan: converted *makōn "to make" into *makōjan[10]
  • Development of a plural ending *-ōs in a-stem nouns.[11]
  • Development of numerous new words, such as the replacement of *newun "nine" with *nigun and *minni "less" (adverb) with *laisi[12]

Changes originating in Ingvaeonic A, like Old Norse but unlike Gothic and Old High German, include:[13]

  • Dative plurals and first person plural forms in numerous paradigms reduced to -um/-un. Compare an-stem dative plural han-ōm/ōn (OHG) and han-am (Gothic) with hǫn-um (ON), han-um/un (OS) and han-um (OE).
  • Elimination of the weak stem -in- in n-stem noun paradigms. For example, OHG gen/dat. sg. han-en and Gothic han-in(s) versus OE han-an, OS han-an/on, OF hon-a, and ON han-a.
  • Shortening of pronominal and adjectival non-feminine dative singulars like ON þeim, OE þǣm~þām, OF thām, and OS thēm, all of which have eliminated the final vowel; contrast Gothic þamma as well as OHG dëmu, dëmo, thëmu, thëmo and the like.

Several, but not all, characteristics are also found in Dutch, which did not generally undergo the nasal spirant law (except for a few words), retained the three distinct plural endings (only to merge them in a later, unrelated change), and exhibits the -s plural in only a limited number of words. However, it lost the reflexive pronoun (even though it did later regain it via borrowing) and had the same four relic weak verbs in Class III.[citation needed]

Some varieties of Upper German, like Alemannic and Swabian, also share features with North Sea Germanic languages, namely the merger of plural verb endings (Swabian: mir machet, ihr machet, se/die machet "we/you/they make"). In Bavarian and Polish Yiddish there exists also the conservation of the second person dual pronouns, though only as a replacement of the second person plural (Bavarian/Yiddish: eß/etz, enk plural "you", compare the Sylt Frisian at, junk "you two").

References

  1. ^ a b Anthonia Feitsma, ‘Democratic’ and ‘elitist’ trends and a Frisian standard, in: Andrew R. Linn, Nicola McLelland (eds.), Standardization: Studies from the Germanic Languages, 2002, p. 205 ff., here p. 205
  2. CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins
    . Retrieved 2024-03-24.
  3. ^ Hans Frede Nielsen, Nordic-West Germanic relations, in: The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages, volume 1 (series: Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft or short HSK 22.1), 2002, p. 558ff., here p. 558f.
  4. ^ Stiles 2013, p. 24.
  5. ^ Ringe & Taylor 2014, pp. 139–141.
  6. ^ Harbert 2006, p. 179.
  7. ^ Harbert 2006, pp. 7–8.
  8. ^ Fulk 2018, p. 133.
  9. ^ Stiles 2013, p. 18.
  10. ^ Ringe & Taylor 2014, p. 161.
  11. ^ Ringe & Taylor 2014, pp. 162–163.
  12. ^ Ringe & Taylor 2014, pp. 165–166.
  13. ^ Stiles 2013, pp. 21–23.

Further reading
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