Northern England

Northern England, also known as the North of England, or simply the North, is the northern area of

The North is a grouping of three statistical regions: the North East, the North West, and Yorkshire and the Humber. These had a combined population of 14.9 million at the 2011 census, an area of 37,331 km² (14,414 square miles) and 17 cities.

Northern England is

For government and statistical purposes, Northern England is defined as the area covered by the three northernmost statistical regions of England: North East England, North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber.^[2] This area consists of the ceremonial counties of Cheshire, Cumbria, County Durham, East Riding of Yorkshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside, Northumberland, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear and West Yorkshire, plus the unitary authority areas of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire.

Other definitions use

Watford Gap

Stoke-on-Trent

Crewe

Sheffield

Richmond

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Various "gateways" to the North

Personal definitions of the North vary greatly. When asked to draw a dividing line between North and South, Southerners tend to draw this line further south than Northerners do.

The

Much of the mountainous upland remains undeveloped, and of

Urban

Largest cities and towns in Northern England 2021 Census[24]
	Rank		Counties	Pop.	Rank		Counties	Pop.
Leeds Liverpool	1	Leeds	West Yorkshire	536,280	11	Blackpool	Lancashire	149,070	Sheffield Manchester
	2	Liverpool	Merseyside	506,565	12	Middlesbrough	North Yorkshire	148,215
	3	Sheffield	South Yorkshire	500,535	13	York	North Yorkshire	141,685
	4	Manchester	Greater Manchester	470,405	14	Huddersfield	West Yorkshire	141,675
	5	Bradford	West Yorkshire	333,950	15	Blackburn	Lancashire	124,955
	6	Newcastle-upon-Tyne	Tyne and Wear	286,445	16	Stockport	Greater Manchester	117,935
	7	Kingston upon Hull	East Riding of Yorkshire	270,810	17	Gateshead	Tyne and Wear	115,280
	8	Bolton	Greater Manchester	184,090	18	Rochdale	Greater Manchester	111,255
	9	Warrington	Cheshire	174,970	19	Oldham	Greater Manchester	110,720
	10	Sunderland	Tyne and Wear	168,315	20	Salford	Greater Manchester	108,410

Uniquely for such a large urban belt in Europe, these cities are all as recent as the Industrial Revolution – most of them previously scattered villages.

Northern England has a cool, wet oceanic climate with small areas of subpolar oceanic climate in the uplands.^[36] Averaged across the entire region,^[d] Northern England temperature range and sunshine duration is similar to the UK average and it sees substantially less rainfall than Scotland or Wales. It is cooler, wetter and cloudier than England as a whole, containing both England's coldest (Cross Fell) and rainiest point (Seathwaite Fell). These averages disguise considerable variation across the region, due chiefly to the upland regions and adjacent seas.^[38][39]

The

The English spoken today in the North has been shaped by the area's history, and some dialects retain features inherited from

Linguists have attempted to define a Northern dialect area, some correspond the area north of a line that begins at the Humber estuary and runs up the River Wharfe and across to the River Lune in north Lancashire.^[42] This area corresponds roughly to the sprachraum of the Old English Northumbrian dialect, although the linguistic elements that defined this area in the past, such as the use of doon instead of down and substitution of an ang sound in words that end -ong (lang instead of long), are now prevalent only in the more northern parts of the region. As speech has changed, there is little consensus on what defines a "Northern" accent or dialect.^[43]

Northern English accents have not undergone the

With urbanisation, distinctive urban accents have arisen which often differ greatly from the historical accents of the surrounding rural areas and sometimes share features with Southern English accents.[43] Northern English dialects remain an important part of the culture of the region, and the desire of speakers to assert their local identity has led to accents such as Scouse and Geordie becoming more distinctive and spreading into surrounding areas.^[49]

Literature

The contrasting geography of Northern England is reflected in its literature. On the one hand, the wild moors and lakes have inspired generations of Romantic authors: the poetry of William Wordsworth and the novels of the Brontë sisters are perhaps the most famous examples of writing inspired by these elemental forces. Classics of children's literature such as The Railway Children (1906), The Secret Garden (1911) and Swallows and Amazons (1930) portray these largely untouched landscapes as worlds of adventure and transformation where their protagonists can break free of the restrictions of society.^[50] Modern poets such as the Poets Laureate Ted Hughes and Simon Armitage have found inspiration in the Northern countryside, producing works that take advantage of the sounds and rhythms of Northern English dialects.^[51][52]

Meanwhile, the industrialising and urbanising cities of the North gave rise to many masterpieces of social realism. Elizabeth Gaskell was the first in a lineage of female realist writers from the North that later included Winifred Holtby, Catherine Cookson, Beryl Bainbridge and Jeanette Winterson.^[53] Many of the angry young men of post-war literature were Northern, and working-class life in the face of deindustrialisation is depicted in novels such as Room at the Top (1959), Billy Liar (1959), This Sporting Life (1960) and A Kestrel for a Knave (1968).^[51][54]

Other languages

There are no recognised minority languages in Northern England, although the Northumbrian Language Society campaigns to have the

During the

Significant settlement appears to have begun in the Mesolithic era, with Star Carr in North Yorkshire generally considered the most significant monument of this era.^[63][64] The Star Carr site includes Britain's oldest known house, from around 9000 BC, and the earliest evidence of carpentry in the form of a carved tree trunk from 11000 BC.^[63][65]

The Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Wolds around the Humber Estuary were settled and farmed in the Bronze Age, and the Ferriby Boats – one of the best-preserved finds of the era – were discovered near Hull in 1937.^[66] In the more mountainous regions of the Peak District, hillforts were the main Bronze Age settlement and the locals were most likely pastoralists raising livestock.^[67]

Iron Age and the Romans

Roman histories name the Celtic tribe that occupied the majority of Northern England as the

The Brigantes allied with the Roman Empire during the Roman conquest of Britain: Tacitus records that they handed the resistance leader Caratacus over to the Empire in 51.^[70] Power struggles within the Brigantes made the Romans wary, and they were conquered in a war beginning in the 70s under the governorship of Quintus Petillius Cerialis.^[71] The Romans created the province of "Britannia Inferior" (Lower Britain) in the North, and it was ruled from the city of Eboracum (modern York).^[72] Eboracum and Deva Victrix (modern Chester) were the main legionary bases in the region, with other smaller forts including Mamucium (Manchester) and Cataractonium (Catterick).^[73][74] Britannia Inferior extended as far north as Hadrian's Wall, which was the northernmost border of the Roman Empire.^[e] Although the Romans invaded modern-day Northumberland and part of Scotland beyond it, they never succeeded in conquering the reaches of Britain beyond the River Tyne.^[75]

Anglo-Saxons and Vikings

After the

Parts of the north and east of England were subject to Danish control (the Danelaw) during the Viking Age, but the northern part of the old Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria remained under Anglo-Saxon control.^[f] Under the Vikings, monasteries were largely wiped out, and the discovery of grave goods in Northern churchyards suggests that Norse funeral rites replaced Christian ones for a time.^[81] Viking control of certain areas, particularly around Yorkshire, is recalled in the etymology of many place names: the thorpe in town names such as Cleethorpes and Scunthorpe, the kirk in Kirklees and Ormskirk and the by of Whitby and Grimsby all have Norse roots.^[82]

Norman Conquest and the Middle Ages

The Historic county town strongholds

Carlisle Citadel

Alnwick Castle

Appleby Castle

Durham Castle

Lancaster Castle

York Castle

Chester Castle

The 1066 defeat of the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada by the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York marked the beginning of the end of Viking rule in England, and the almost immediate defeat of Godwinson at the hands of the Norman William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings was in turn the overthrow of the Anglo-Saxon order.^[83] The Northumbrian and Danish aristocracy resisted the Norman Conquest, and to put an end to the rebellion, William ordered the Harrying of the North. In the winter of 1069–1070, towns, villages and farms were systematically destroyed across much of Yorkshire as well as northern Lancashire and County Durham.^[84][85] The region was gripped by famine and much of Northern England was deserted. Chroniclers at the time reported a hundred thousand deaths – modern estimates place the total somewhere in the tens of thousands, out of a population of two million.^[84] When the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086, much of Northern England was still recorded as wasteland,^[85] although this may have been in part because the chroniclers, more interested in manorial farmland, paid little attention to pastoral areas.^[86]

Following Norman subjugation, monasteries returned to the North as missionaries sought to "settle the desert".

Northern England was a focal point for fighting during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The border counties were invaded by Scotland in the Second Bishops' War, and at the 1640 Treaty of Ripon King Charles I was forced to temporarily cede Northumberland and County Durham to the Scots and pay to keep the Scottish armies there.^[98] To raise enough funds and ratify the final peace treaty, Charles had to call what became the Long Parliament, beginning the process that led to the First English Civil War. In 1641, the Long Parliament abolished the Council of the North for perceived abuses during the Personal Rule period.^[97] By the time war broke out in 1642, King Charles had moved his court to York, and Northern England was to become a major base of the Royalist forces until they were routed at the Battle of Marston Moor.^[99]

Industrial Revolution

At the beginning of the

The

The

At the 2011 census, Northern England had a population of 14,933,000 – a growth of 5.1% since 2001 – in 6,364,000 households, meaning that Northerners comprise 28% of the English population and 24% of the UK population. Taken overall, 8% of the population of Northern England were born overseas (3% from the European Union including Ireland and 5% from elsewhere), substantially less than the England and Wales average of 13%, and 5% define their nationality as something other than a UK or Irish identity.^{[g][121][122][123]} 90.5% of the population described themselves as white, compared to an England and Wales average of 85.9%; other ethnicities represented include Pakistani (2.9%), Indian (1.3%), Black (1.3%), Chinese (0.6%) and Bangladeshi (0.5%). The broad averages hide significant variation within the region: Allerdale and Redcar and Cleveland had a greater percentage of the population identifying as White British (97.6% each) than any other district in England and Wales, while Manchester (66.5%), Bradford (67.4%) and Blackburn with Darwen (69.1%) had among the lowest proportions of White British outside London.^[124][125]

Languages

95% of the Northern population speak English as a first language – compared to an England and Wales average of 92%

At the 2011 census, the North East and North West had the largest proportion of Christians in England and Wales; 67.5% and 67.3% respectively (the proportion in Yorkshire and the Humber was lower at 59.5%). Yorkshire and the Humber and the North West both had significant populations of Muslims – 6.2% and 5.1% respectively – while Muslims in the North East made up only 1.8% of the population. All other faiths combined comprised less than 2% of the population in all regions.[127]

The census question on religion has been criticised by the

One major manifestation of the North–South divide is in health and

These health inequalities manifested during the COVID-19 pandemic in high infection rates, death rates and excess mortality in Northern England, and in severe job losses in the following Great Lockdown recession.^[133] By June 2020, the infection rate in Northern England was nearly double that in London,^[134] and a study by the Northern Health Science Alliance found that of the six worst affected areas in England during the pandemic in their study, five were located in the North.^[133]

Education

University of Leeds Great Hall

University of Manchester

University of Huddersfield Creative Arts Building

Sheffield Hallam University

University of Chester Bluecoat School

University of Bradford Richmond Building

Before the 19th century, there were no universities in Northern England. The first was the

There is a significant attainment gap between Northern and Southern schools, and pupils in the three regions are less likely than the national average to achieve five higher-tier GCSEs,^[137] although this may be down to economic disadvantages faced by Northern pupils rather than a difference in school quality.^[138] Northern students are under-represented at Oxbridge, where three times as many places go to southerners as to northerners, and at other Southern universities; while southerners are under-represented at leading Northern universities such as Sheffield, Manchester and Leeds.^[139] There are calls for the government to invest in education in disadvantaged parts of Northern England to redress the disparities in educational attainment and university admissions between north and south.^[140]

Economy

Like the UK as a whole, the Northern English economy is now dominated by the

Growth, employment and household income have lagged behind the South, and the five most deprived districts in England^[i] are all in Northern England,^[147][148] as are ten of the twelve most declining major towns in the UK.^[j][149] The picture is not clear-cut, as the North has areas which are as wealthy as, if not wealthier than, fashionable Southern areas such as Surrey. Yorkshire's Golden Triangle which extends from north Leeds to Harrogate and across to York is an example, as is Cheshire's Golden Triangle, centred on Alderley Edge.^[150][151] There are major disparities even across individual cities: Sheffield Hallam is one of the wealthiest constituencies in the country, and is the richest outside London and the South East, while Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, just on the other side of the city, is one of the most deprived.^[150][152] Housing in Northern England is more affordable than the UK average: the median house price in most Northern cities was below £200,000 in 2015 with typical increases of below 10% over the previous five years. However, some areas have seen house prices fall considerably, putting inhabitants at risk of negative equity.^[153][154]

The decline of coal mining and manufacturing in Northern England has led to comparisons with the

The public sector is a major employer in Northern England. Between 2000 and 2008, the majority of new jobs created in Northern England were for the government and its suppliers and contractors.^[159] All three Northern regions have public sector employment above the national average, and North East has the highest level in England with 20.2% of the workforce in the public sector as of 2016 – down from 23.4% a decade earlier.^[160][161] The austerity programme under the government of David Cameron saw significant cuts to public services, and the reduction in public sector employment resulted in job losses for around 3% of the Northern England workforce with significant impact on the regional economy.^[159]

Agriculture and fisheries

There are 2,580,000 hectares (6,400,000 acres; 25,800 km²; 10,000 sq mi) of farmland in Northern England.^[162] The rough Pennine terrain means that most of Northern England is unsuited for growing crops; like Scotland, Northern farming was traditionally dominated by oats, which grow better than wheat in poor soil.^[163][164] Today, the mix of cereals and vegetables grown is similar to that of the UK as a whole, but only a minority of land is arable. Only 32% of Northern farmland is primarily used for growing crops, compared to 49% for England as a whole. Conversely, 57% of the land is given over to rearing livestock, and 33% of England's cattle, 43% of its pigs and 46% of its sheep and lambs are reared in the North.^[162]

The only part of the region that is predominantly given over to crops is the land around the Humber estuary, where the well-drained fens result in excellent quality land.^[19][163] The lowland Cheshire Plain is mostly given over to dairy farming, while in the Pennines and Cheviots grazing sheep play an important role not just in agriculture but also in land management more generally.^[163] Heather moorland in the Pennine uplands is home to driven grouse shooting from 12 August (the Glorious Twelfth) until 10 December every year. The number of grouse moors in Northern England is a major threat to natural predators, which are often killed by gamekeepers to protect grouse, and as a result, the Cumbria Wildlife Trust describes the North's moors as a "black hole" for the endangered hen harrier.^[165]

Sea fishing is an important industry for Northern coastal towns. Major fishing ports include Fleetwood, Grimsby, Hull and Whitby. At its height, Grimsby was the largest fishing port in the world, but the Northern fishing industry suffered greatly from a series of events in the second half of the twentieth century: the Cod Wars with Iceland and establishment of the exclusive economic zone ended British access to rich North Atlantic fishing grounds, while the North Sea was badly overfished and the European Common Fisheries Policy put strict quotas on catches to protect the almost depleted stocks.^[166][167] Grimsby is now transitioning to the processing of imported seafood and to offshore wind to replace its fishing fleet.^[167]

Manufacturing and energy

Northern England has a strong export-based economy, with

Around 10% of the Northern England workforce is employed in retail.

With urban regeneration, high-value service sector industries such as corporate services and financial services have taken root in Northern England, with major hubs around Leeds and Manchester.^[175] Call centres – attracted by low labour costs and a preference for Northern English accents among the public – have replaced heavy industry as major employers of unskilled workers, with more than 5% of workers in all Northern England regions working in one.^[179][180]

High-tech and research

Together, the N8 research universities have over 190,000 students and contribute more to the Northern economy in terms of GVA than agriculture, car manufacturing or media.^[136] Discoveries and inventions at these universities have resulted in spin-offs worth hundreds of millions to local economies: the discovery of graphene at the University of Manchester produced the National Graphene Institute and the Sir Henry Royce Institute for Advanced Materials, while robotics research at the University of Sheffield led to the development of the Advanced Manufacturing Park.^[178]

Recent decades have seen the growth of high-tech companies based around Northern England's major cities. There are eleven high-tech firms worth over $1 billion based in the region, and digital industries support around 300,000 jobs.

The expansion of the railway network in the second half of the nineteenth century meant most in the North lived within reach of the coast, and seaside towns saw a major tourism boom. By around 1870 Blackpool on the Lancashire coast had become overwhelmingly the most popular destination – not just for Northern families, but many from the Midlands and Scotland as well.^[183] Other resorts popular with Northerners included Morecambe in northern Lancashire, Whitley Bay near Newcastle, Whitby in North Yorkshire, and New Brighton on the Wirral Peninsula, as well as Rhyl over the border in North Wales.^[184][185]

The same social forces that had built these resorts in the nineteenth century proved to be their undoing in the twentieth. Transport links continued to improve and it became possible to travel overseas quickly and affordably. The Belgian coast at

Steel-built landmarks of the North

Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge

Humber Bridge

The individual regions of the North have had their own identities and cultures for centuries, but with industrialisation, mass media and the opening of the North–South divide, a common Northern identity began to develop. This identity was initially a reactionary response to Southern prejudices—the North of the nineteenth century was largely depicted as a dirty, wild and uncultured place, even in sympathetic depictions such as Elizabeth Gaskell's 1855 novel North and South^[210]—but became an affirmation of what Northerners saw as their own personal strengths.^{[211][212][213]}

Traits stereotypically associated with Northern England are straight-talking, grit and warmheartedness, as compared to the supposedly effete Southerners.^[211][214] Northern England—especially Lancashire, but also Yorkshire and the North East—has a tradition of matriarchal families, where the woman of the house runs the home and controls the family's finances. This too has its roots in industrialisation, when mills offered well-paid work for women: during depressions when demand for coal and steel were low, women were often the main breadwinners. Northern women are still stereotyped as strong-willed and independent, or affectionately as battle-axes.^{[215][216][217]}

"It's grim up north"

The phrase it's grim up north is associated with

The North of England is often stereotypically represented through the clothing worn by working-class men and women in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.^[224] Working men would wear a heavy jacket and trousers held up by braces, an overcoat, and a hat, typically a flat cap, while women would wear a dress, or a skirt and blouse, with an apron on top as protection from dirt; in colder months they would often wear a shawl or headscarf.^{[224][225][226]} The maud, a woollen plaid woven in a pattern of small black and white checks, was also popular in Northern England until the early twentieth century.^[227]

If not wearing leather lace-up shoes, some men and women would have worn English clogs, which were hardwearing and had replaceable soles and tips.^[226] Factory workers tapping their feet in time with the click of machinery developed a type of folk clog dance referred to as clogging, which was intricately developed in the North.^[228]

In the second half of the twentieth century, these traditional clothes fell out of fashion. Other styles such as "

Lancashire Hotpot

Cheshire cheese

Newcastle Brown Ale

Impressions of Northern English cuisine are still shaped by the working-class diet of the early twentieth century, which was heavy on offal, high in calories and often not particularly healthy. Dishes such as black pudding, tripe, mushy peas and meat pie remain stereotypical Northern English foods in the national imagination. As a result, there is a concerted effort among Northern chefs to improve the region's image.^[232] Some Northern dishes such as Yorkshire pudding and Lancashire hotpot have spread across the UK, and only their names now hint at their origin. Among the Northern delicacies that have achieved Protected Geographical Status are traditional Cumberland sausage, traditional Grimsby smoked fish, Swaledale cheese, Yorkshire forced rhubarb and Yorkshire Wensleydale.^{[k] [234]}

The North is known for its often crumbly cheeses, of which

According to The Tab, the bakery chain Greggs is an integral part of Northern identity, using the number of people per Greggs as an indicator as to whether a town should be considered Northern.^[243]

Immigration to Northern England has shaped its cuisine. The Teesside

• 
  Northumbrian pipers at Alwinton Border Shepherds Show.
• 
  The Harrogate Band playing in Leeds

Traditional folk music in Northern England is a combination of styles of England and Scotland – what is now called the Anglo-Scottish border ballad was once prevalent as far south as Lancashire.^[247] In the Middle Ages, much of Northern folk was accompanied by bagpipes, with styles including the Lancashire bagpipe, Yorkshire bagpipe and Northumbrian smallpipes. These disappeared in the early nineteenth century from the industrialising south of the region, but remain in the music of Northumbria.^[248]

The

Sport has been both one of the most unifying cultural forces in Northern England and, thanks to local rivalries such as the Lancashire–Yorkshire Roses rivalry, one of the most divisive. As huge numbers of people moved into recently built cities with little cultural heritage, local sports teams offered the population a sense of place and identity that was otherwise absent.^[257]

Many early Northern sports players were working class and needed to miss work to play, with their teams compensating them for lost wages. By contrast, Southern teams, drawing from the traditions of

Organised women's football followed as the workforces of majority-female factories of Northern England in the First World War entered the 1917–18 Tyne, Wear & Tees Munition Girls Cup – the world's first women's football tournament. However, the FA did not support women's football and banned it altogether in 1921.^[268] Intense local derbies between neighbouring teams mean that there is less of a North–South rivalry than in some other sports.^[257]

Many of the powerhouses of English football came from the North – as of the 2022–23 season, of the 125 top-flight league titles since 1888, 85 (68%) have been won by teams based north of Crewe.^[269] Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United and Manchester City are among the mainstays of the Premier League, while teams like Blackburn Rovers, Middlesbrough, Newcastle United and Sunderland have had more inconsistent runs in recent years, regularly being promoted and relegated from the top flight.^[269]

Northern England is also the birthplace of the largest proportion the country's top players – as of

Hull KR's Craven Park

Huddersfield Giants's Kirklees Stadium

Wigan Warriors's Stadium

Cricket has a strong following in Northern England, and three counties are represented by first-class county cricket teams: Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire. The Roses Match (named for the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York) between Lancashire and Yorkshire is one of the hardest fought rivalries in the sport – the pride of both sides, and their determination not to lose, resulted in the teams developing a slow, stubborn and defensive style that proved unpopular elsewhere in the country.^[277] The London-based Marylebone Cricket Club, which controlled the game at the time, selected few Northern players for Test matches, and this was perceived as a snub to their playing style – the anger united Lancashire and Yorkshire against the South and helped cast a shared Northern identity that transcended the Roses rivalry.^[277][278] This divide was illustrated in the 1924 County Championship, when Yorkshire beat London-based Middlesex to claim the title. Surrey accused Yorkshire of scuffing the pitch and intimidating the bowlers, while the match with Middlesex was so vicious that the team threatened to never play in Yorkshire again.^[277][278] The Lancashire captain Jack Sharp on the other hand was quoted as saying "I'm real glad a rose won it. Red or white, it doesn't matter."^[278] Durham are a recent addition to top-flight cricket, having only achieved first-class status in 1992, but have won the County Championship three times.^[279]

Although Yorkshire and Lancashire were traditionally more relaxed about professionalism than other counties, cricket did not see the same regional schisms on the topic that rugby and football did – there were debates over amateur status in first-class cricket, but these tensions were given release in the Gentlemen v Players fixture.^[280] Nevertheless, the annual North v South games were among the most popular and competitive in the sport, running annually from 1849 until 1900 and intermittently thereafter.^[281]

Politics

Northern England, as the first area in the world to industrialise, was the birthplace of much modern political thought. Marxism and, more generally, socialism were shaped by reports into the lives of the Northern working class, from Friedrich Engels' The Condition of the Working Class in England to George Orwell's The Road to Wigan Pier.^[282] Meanwhile, enterprise and trade at the North's ports influenced the birth of Manchester Liberalism, a laissez-faire free trade philosophy. Expounded by C. P. Scott and the Manchester Guardian, the movement's greatest success was the repeal of the Corn Laws, protests against which had led to the 1819 Peterloo Massacre in Manchester.^[283]

The first

Campaigns for Northern English devolution have seen little electoral support. Plans by Labour under Tony Blair to create devolved regional assemblies for the three Northern regions were abandoned after the government lost the 2004 North East England devolution referendum against a No vote of 78%.^[297] The regionalist Yorkshire Party and North East Party only hold seats at the local council level,^[298] and the Northern Party, which campaigned for a devolved Northern government with the power to make laws and full control of taxation and spending, was wound up in 2016.^[299][300]

The Northern Independence Party was founded in October 2020, a secessionist and democratic socialist political party that seeks to make Northern England an independent nation, under the name of Northumbria.^{[301][302][303]}

Religion

Christianity

Anglican Province of York

Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral and Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Liverpool

Cathedrals of the Archbishop of York (Anglican) and Archbishop of Liverpool

(Roman Catholic), the highest-ranking church officials in the North.

After the English Reformation Northern England became a centre of Catholicism, and

Small Jewish communities arose in Beverley, Doncaster, Grimsby, Lancaster, Newcastle, and York in the wake of the Norman Conquest but suffered massacres and pogroms, of which the largest was the York Massacre in 1190.^[317] Jews were forcibly banished from England by the 1290 Edict of Expulsion until the Resettlement of the Jews in England in the seventeenth century, and the first synagogue in the North appeared in Liverpool in 1753.^[318] Manchester also has a long-standing Jewish community: the now-demolished 1857 Manchester Reform Synagogue was the second Reform synagogue in the country,^[319][320] and Greater Manchester has the only eruv in the United Kingdom outside London.^[321] Traditionally, there is also a large Jewish presence in Gateshead. In total, there are 84 synagogues in Northern England registered for marriages.^[314]

Spiritualism flourished in Northern England in the nineteenth century, in part as a backlash to the fundamentalist Primitive Methodist movement and in part driven by the influence of Owenist socialism.^[322] There remain 220 Spiritualist churches registered in the North, of which 40 identify as Christian Spiritualist.^[314]

The first

Transport in the North has been shaped by the Pennines, creating strong north–south axes along each coast and an east–west axis across the moorland passes of the southern Pennines.[327] Northern England is a centre of freight transport and handles around one third of all British cargo.^[328] Both passenger and freight links between Northern cities remain poor, which is a major weakness of the Northern economy.^[329]

The passenger transport executive (PTE) has become a major player in the organisation of public transport within Northern city regions; of the six PTEs in England, five (Transport for Greater Manchester, Merseytravel, Travel South Yorkshire, Nexus Tyne and Wear and West Yorkshire Metro) are located in the North.^[330] These coordinate bus services, local trains and light rail in their regions. Following the passage of the Cities and Local Government Devolution Act 2016, Transport for the North became a statutory body in 2018 with powers to coordinate services and offer integrated ticketing throughout the region.^[329]

Road

The

The North of England pioneered

MAN

NCL

LPL

LBA

HUY

MME

class=notpageimage|

International airports of Northern England

In total, there are six international airports in the North; these are (in descending order of passenger traffic)

Manchester Airport is a major hub and the busiest airport anywhere in the UK outside London, handling 23.3 million people in 2022 (10.5% of all UK passengers), and Newcastle (4.1 million), Liverpool (3.5 million) and Leeds-Bradford (3.3 million) serve their city regions.[347]

Other airports in the North have struggled. Teesside and Humberside both see very little traffic while other airports have closed to commercial flights entirely:

The devolution of Air Passenger Duty in Scotland allows Scottish airports to offer cheaper flights than their English rivals^[354] as well as London airports turning Northern airports to spoke airports, forcing connecting passengers to travel via London or continental European airports for major destinations.

Water

The first modern canal in England was Sankey Brook, opened in 1757 to connect Liverpool's ports to the St Helens coalfields.^[355] By 1777, the Grand Trunk Canal had opened, linking the rivers Mersey and Trent and making it possible for boats to travel directly from Liverpool to Hull.^[355] Manchester, 40 miles (64 km) inland, was connected to the Irish Sea by the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894, although the canal never saw the success that was hoped for.^[356] The North retains many navigable canals, including the Cheshire, North Pennine and South Pennine canal rings, although they are now used mostly for pleasure rather than transport – the Aire and Calder Navigation, which carries over 2 million tons of oil, sand and gravel per year, is a rare exception.^[357]

Many Northern coastal towns were built on trade, and retain large sea ports. The Humber ports of

See also

• Black Country
• Cornwall
• Devolution to the North of England
• East Anglia
• Greater London
• Home counties
• The Midlands
• Southern England
• Welsh Marches
• West Country
• West of England

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

1. ^ Compton, Garnett (21 March 2013). "2011 Census: Population Estimates by five-year age bands, and Household Estimates, for Local Authorities in the United Kingdom". Office of National Statistics. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
2. ^ IPPR North 2012, pp. 20–22.
3. ^ ^{a b} Wales 2006, pp. 13–14.
4. ^ ^{a b} Russell 2004, pp. 15–16.
5. ^ "Gazetteer of Cheshire". Carlscam.com. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
6. ^ Dorling, Danny (2007). "The North-South Divide – Where is the line?". University of Sheffield. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
7. ^
   ISBN 978-3-11-020839-9
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General and cited references

• Cockin, K. (2012). The Literary North. Springer.
  ISBN 978-1-137-02687-3
  .
• Dobson, R. B. (1996). Church and Society in the Medieval North of England. A&C Black.
  ISBN 978-1-85285-120-0
  .
• Ehland, Christoph (2007). Thinking Northern: Textures of Identity in the North of England. Editions Rodopi BV.
  ISBN 978-90-420-2281-2
  .
• Harding, D. W. (2004). The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders. Routledge.
  ISBN 978-1-134-41786-5
  .
• Hickey, Raymond (2015). Researching Northern English. John Benjamins.
  ISBN 978-90-272-6767-2
  .
• Holder, Judith (2005). It's Not Grim Up North. BBC Books.
  ISBN 978-0-563-52281-2
  .
• Jewell, Helen (1994). The North-south Divide: The Origins of Northern Consciousness in England. Manchester University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7190-3804-4
  .
• ISBN 978-0-09-191022-8
  .
• Pettit, Paul; White, Mark (2012). The British Palaeolithic: Human Societies at the Edge of the Pleistocene World. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
  ISBN 978-0-415-67455-3
  .
• Russell, Dave (2004). Looking North: Northern England and the National Imagination. Manchester University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-7190-5178-4
  .
• Wales, Katie (2006). Northern English: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-511-48707-1
  .
• Highways England (2016). Northern Trans-Pennine Routes Strategic Study (PDF). Department for Transport.
• IPPR North (2012). Northern Prosperity is National Prosperity (PDF). Institute for Public Policy Research.
• IPPR North (2016). The Northern Powerhouse in Action (PDF). Institute for Public Policy Research.

Further reading

• Turner, Graham (1967). The North Country. Eyre & Spottiswoode.
• Wainwright, Martin (2009). True North. Guardian Books.
  ISBN 978-0-85265-113-1
  .

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