Song dynasty
Song 宋 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
960–1279 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Middle Chinese | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Chinese folk religion, Islam, Chinese Nestorian Christianity | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Emperor | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 960–976 | Emperor Taizu (founder of Northern Song) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1127–1162 | Emperor Gaozong (founder of Southern Song) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1278–1279 | Zhao Bing (last) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Jingkang Incident | 1127 | |||||||||||||||||||||
• Beginning of Mongol invasion | 1235 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Fall of Lin'an | 1276 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
(end of dynasty) | 19 March 1279 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||
958 est.[2] | 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
980 est.[2] | 3,100,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
1127 est.[2] | 2,100,000 km2 (810,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
1204 est.[2] | 1,800,000 km2 (690,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1120s | |||||||||||||||||||||||
copper coins , etc. | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||
Today part of | People's Republic of China Republic of China (Penghu) |
Song dynasty | ||
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Tâi-lô Sòng tiâu | | |
Middle Chinese | ||
Middle Chinese | /suoŋH ʈˠiᴇu/ |
Part of a series on the |
History of China |
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The Song dynasty (/sʊŋ/) was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms, ending the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Song often came into conflict with the contemporaneous Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties in northern China. After retreating to southern China following attacks by the Jin dynasty, the Song was eventually conquered by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty.
The dynasty is divided into
The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and emergence of a national economy led to the gradual withdrawal of the central government from
History
Northern Song, 960–1127
After usurping the throne of the
The Song court maintained diplomatic relations with
The Song dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman
During the 11th century, political rivalries divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist
After Fan was forced to step down from his office, Wang Anshi (1021–1086) became Chancellor of the imperial court. With the backing of Emperor Shenzong (1067–1085), Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the New Policies. These involved land value tax reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, the support of local militias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass.[32]
The reforms created political factions in the court. Wang Anshi's "New Policies Group" (Xin Fa), also known as the "Reformers", were opposed by the ministers in the "Conservative" faction led by the historian and Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086).[33] As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire.[32] One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.[32]
The continual alternation between reform and conservatism had effectively weakened the dynasty. This decline can also be attributed to Cai Jing (1047–1126), who was appointed by Emperor Zhezong (1085–1100) and who remained in power until 1125. He revived the New Policies and pursued political opponents, tolerated corruption and encouraged Emperor Huizong (1100–1126) to neglect his duties to focus on artistic pursuits. Later, a peasant rebellion broke out in Zhejiang and Fujian, headed by Fang La in 1120. The rebellion may have been caused by an increasing tax burden, the concentration of landownership and oppressive government measures.[34]
While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs, alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention. The Jurchen, a subject tribe of the Liao, rebelled against them and formed their own state, the Jin dynasty (1115–1234).[35] The Song official Tong Guan (1054–1126) advised Emperor Huizong to form an alliance with the Jurchens, and the joint military campaign under this Alliance Conducted at Sea toppled and completely conquered the Liao dynasty by 1125. During the joint attack, the Song's northern expedition army removed the defensive forest along the Song-Liao border.[25]
However, the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchens, who immediately broke the alliance, beginning the
The remaining Song forces regrouped under the self-proclaimed Emperor Gaozong of Song (1127–1162) and withdrew south of the Yangtze to establish a new capital at Lin'an (modern Hangzhou). The Jurchen conquest of North China and shift of capitals from Kaifeng to Lin'an was the dividing line between the Northern and Southern Song dynasties.
After their fall to the Jin, the Song lost control of North China. Now occupying what has been traditionally known as "China Proper", the Jin regarded themselves the rightful rulers of China. The Jin later chose earth as their dynastic element and yellow as their royal color. According to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing), the earth element follows the fire, the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, their ideological move showed that the Jin considered Song reign in China complete, with the Jin replacing the Song as the rightful rulers of China Proper.[36]
Southern Song, 1127–1279
Although weakened and pushed south beyond the
To protect and support the multitude of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters of the
The Song government confiscated portions of land owned by the landed gentry in order to raise revenue for these projects, an act which caused dissension and loss of loyalty amongst leading members of Song society but did not stop the Song's defensive preparations.[44][45][46] Financial matters were made worse by the fact that many wealthy, land-owning families—some of which had officials working for the government—used their social connections with those in office in order to obtain tax-exempt status.[47]
Although the Song dynasty was able to hold back the Jin, a new foe came to power over the steppe, deserts, and plains north of the Jin dynasty. The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227), initially invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209, engaging in large raids across its borders, and in 1211 an enormous Mongol army was assembled to invade the Jin.[48] The Jin dynasty was forced to submit and pay tribute to the Mongols as vassals; when the Jin suddenly moved their capital city from Beijing to Kaifeng, the Mongols saw this as a revolt.[49] Under the leadership of Ögedei Khan (r.1229–1241), both the Jin dynasty and Western Xia dynasty were conquered by Mongol forces in 1233/34.[49][50]
The Mongols were allied with the Song, but this alliance was broken when the Song recaptured the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng,
His successor Kublai Khan continued the assault against the Song, gaining a temporary foothold on the southern banks of the Yangtze.[54] By the winter of 1259, Uriyangkhadai's army fought its way north to meet Kublai's army, which was besieging Ezhou in Hubei.[51] Kublai made preparations to take Ezhou, but a pending civil war with his brother Ariq Böke—a rival claimant to the Mongol Khaganate—forced Kublai to move back north with the bulk of his forces.[55] In Kublai's absence, the Song forces were ordered by Chancellor Jia Sidao to make an immediate assault and succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern banks of the Yangtze.[56] There were minor border skirmishes until 1265, when Kublai won a significant battle in Sichuan.[57]
From 1268 to 1273, Kublai blockaded the Yangtze River with his navy and besieged Xiangyang, the last obstacle in his way to invading the rich Yangtze River basin.[57] Kublai officially declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty in 1271. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by Kublai's newly appointed commander-in-chief, general Bayan.[58] By 1276, most of the Song territory had been captured by Yuan forces, including the capital Lin'an.[50]
In the
Culture and society
The Song dynasty
Although women were on a lower social tier than men according to Confucian ethics, they enjoyed many social and legal privileges and wielded considerable power at home and in their own small businesses. As Song society became more and more prosperous and parents on the bride's side of the family provided larger
The populace engaged in a vibrant social and domestic life, enjoying such public festivals as the
Civil service examinations and the gentry
During this period greater emphasis was laid upon the
Due to Song's enormous population growth and the body of its appointed scholar-officials being accepted in limited numbers (about 20,000 active officials during the Song period), the larger scholarly
The gentry distinguished themselves in society through their intellectual and antiquarian pursuits,[94][95][96] while the homes of prominent landholders attracted a variety of courtiers, including artisans, artists, educational tutors, and entertainers.[97] Despite the disdain for trade, commerce, and the merchant class exhibited by the highly cultured and elite exam-drafted scholar-officials, commercialism played a prominent role in Song culture and society.[77] A scholar-official would be frowned upon by his peers if he pursued means of profiteering outside of his official salary; however, this did not stop many scholar-officials from managing business relations through the use of intermediary agents.[98]
Law, justice, and forensic science
The Song
Shen Kuo's
Military and methods of warfare
The Song military was chiefly organized to ensure that the army could not threaten Imperial control, often at the expense of effectiveness in war. Northern Song's Military Council operated under a Chancellor, who had no control over the imperial army. The imperial army was divided among three marshals, each independently responsible to the Emperor. Since the Emperor rarely led campaigns personally, Song forces lacked unity of command.[106] The imperial court often believed that successful generals endangered royal authority, and relieved or even executed them (notably Li Gang,[107] Yue Fei, and Han Shizhong[108]).
Although the scholar-officials viewed
Military strategy and military training were treated as sciences that could be studied and perfected; soldiers were tested in their skills of using weaponry and in their athletic ability.[116] The troops were trained to follow signal standards to advance at the waving of banners and to halt at the sound of bells and drums.[112]
The Song navy was of great importance during the consolidation of the empire in the 10th century; during the war against the
In a battle on January 23, 971, massive arrow fire from Song dynasty crossbowmen decimated the war elephant corps of the Southern Han army.[120] This defeat not only marked the eventual submission of the Southern Han to the Song dynasty, but also the last instance where a war elephant corps was employed as a regular division within a Chinese army.[120]
There was a total of 347 military treatises written during the Song period, as listed by the history text of the Song Shi (compiled in 1345).[121] However, only a handful of these military treatises have survived, which includes the Wujing Zongyao written in 1044. It was the first known book to have listed formulas for gunpowder;[122] it gave appropriate formulas for use in several different kinds of gunpowder bombs.[123] It also provided detailed descriptions and illustrations of double-piston pump flamethrowers, as well as instructions for the maintenance and repair of the components and equipment used in the device.[124]
Arts, literature, philosophy, and religion
The visual arts during the Song dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting. The gentry elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar-official, including
The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers.
In philosophy,
Cuisine and clothing
Women wore long dresses, blouses that came down to the knee, skirts, and jackets with long or short sleeves, while women from wealthy families could wear purple scarves around their shoulders. The main difference in women's apparel from that of men was that it was fastened on the left, not on the right.[136]
The main food staples in the diet of the lower classes remained rice, pork, and salted fish.
Song restaurant and tavern menus are recorded. They list entrees for feasts, banquets, festivals, and carnivals. They reveal a diverse and lavish diet for those of the upper class. They could choose from a wide variety of meats and seafood, including shrimp, geese, duck, mussel, shellfish, fallow deer, hare, partridge, pheasant, francolin, quail, fox, badger, clam, crab, and many others.[138][140][141] Dairy products were rare in Chinese cuisine at this time. Beef was rarely consumed since the bull was a valuable draft animal, and dog meat was absent from the diet of the wealthy, although the poor could choose to eat dog meat if necessary (yet it was not part of their regular diet).[142] People also consumed dates, raisins, jujubes, pears, plums, apricots, pear juice, lychee-fruit juice, honey and ginger drinks, spices and seasonings of Sichuan pepper, ginger, soy sauce, vegetable oil, sesame oil, salt, and vinegar.[140][143]
Economy
The Song dynasty had one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world. Song Chinese invested their funds in
The
The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 reached roughly six billion coins.[10] The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world's first government issued paper-printed money, known as Jiaozi (see also Huizi).[10] For the printing of paper money, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi.[151] The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day.[151]
The economic power of Song China can be attested by the growth of the urban population of its capital city Hangzhou. The population was 200,000 at the start of the 12th century and increased to 500,000 around 1170 and doubled to over a million a century later.
[Song era] investors usually divided their investment among many ships, and each ship had many investors behind it. One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash. He wrote, "People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade, either because they are fellow-countrymen or personal acquaintances. ... [They give the merchants] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods. They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash, and regularly make profits of several hundred percent".[88]
Science and technology
Gunpowder warfare
Advancements in weapons technology enhanced by gunpowder, including the evolution of the early
As early as the Han dynasty, when the state needed to accurately measure distances traveled throughout the empire, the Chinese relied on a mechanical odometer.[163] The Chinese odometer was a wheeled carriage, its gearwork being driven by the rotation of the carriage's wheels; specific units of distance—the Chinese li—were marked by the mechanical striking of a drum or bell as an auditory signal.[164] The specifications for the 11th-century odometer were written by Chief Chamberlain Lu Daolong, who is quoted extensively in the historical text of the Song Shi (compiled by 1345).[165] In the Song period, the odometer vehicle was also combined with another old complex mechanical device known as the south-pointing chariot.[166] This device, originally crafted by Ma Jun in the 3rd century, incorporated a differential gear that allowed a figure mounted on the vehicle to always point in the southern direction, no matter how the vehicle's wheels turned about.[167] The concept of the differential gear that was used in this navigational vehicle is now found in modern automobiles in order to apply an equal amount of torque to a car's wheels even when they are rotating at different speeds.
Polymaths, inventions, and astronomy
Polymaths such as the scientists and statesmen
Shen Kuo was the first to discern
Su Song was best known for his horology treatise written in 1092, which described and illustrated in great detail his
The Song Chinese observed
Mathematics and cartography
There were many notable improvements to
Movable type printing
The innovation of movable type printing was made by the artisan Bi Sheng (990–1051), first described by the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088.[197][198] The collection of Bi Sheng's original clay-fired typeface was passed on to one of Shen Kuo's nephews, and was carefully preserved.[198][199] Movable type enhanced the already widespread use of woodblock methods of printing thousands of documents and volumes of written literature, consumed eagerly by an increasingly literate public. The advancement of printing deeply affected education and the scholar-official class, since more books could be made faster while mass-produced, printed books were cheaper in comparison to laborious handwritten copies.[84][88] The enhancement of widespread printing and print culture in the Song period was thus a direct catalyst in the rise of social mobility and expansion of the educated class of scholar elites, the latter which expanded dramatically in size from the 11th to 13th centuries.[84][200]
The movable type invented by Bi Sheng was ultimately trumped by the use of woodblock printing due to the limitations of
Hydraulic and nautical engineering
The most important nautical innovation of the Song period seems to have been the introduction of the magnetic mariner's compass, which permitted accurate navigation on the open sea regardless of the weather.[192] The magnetized compass needle – known in Chinese as the "south-pointing needle" – was first described by Shen Kuo in his 1088 Dream Pool Essays and first mentioned in active use by sailors in Zhu Yu's 1119 Pingzhou Table Talks.
There were other considerable advancements in
Structural engineering and architecture
Architecture during the Song period reached new heights of sophistication. Authors such as Yu Hao and Shen Kuo wrote books outlining the field of architectural layouts, craftsmanship, and structural engineering in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively. Shen Kuo preserved the written dialogues of Yu Hao when describing technical issues such as slanting struts built into pagoda towers for diagonal wind bracing.[210] Shen Kuo also preserved Yu's specified dimensions and units of measurement for various building types.[211] The architect Li Jie (1065–1110), who published the Yingzao Fashi ('Treatise on Architectural Methods') in 1103, greatly expanded upon the works of Yu Hao and compiled the standard building codes used by the central government agencies and by craftsmen throughout the empire.[212] He addressed the standard methods of construction, design, and applications of moats and fortifications, stonework, greater woodwork, lesser woodwork, wood-carving, turning and drilling, sawing, bamboo work, tiling, wall building, painting and decoration, brickwork, glazed tile making, and provided proportions for mortar formulas in masonry.[213][214] In his book, Li provided detailed and vivid illustrations of architectural components and cross-sections of buildings. These illustrations displayed various applications of corbel brackets, cantilever arms, mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, and diagrams showing the various building types of halls in graded sizes.[215] He also outlined the standard units of measurement and standard dimensional measurements of all building components described and illustrated in his book.[216]
Grandiose building projects were supported by the government, including the erection of towering Buddhist
The professions of the architect, craftsman, carpenter, and structural engineer were not seen as professionally equal to that of a Confucian scholar-official. Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years in China, in many cases from a father craftsman to his son. Structural engineering and architecture schools were known to have existed during the Song period; one prestigious engineering school was headed by the renowned bridge-builder Cai Xiang (1012–1067) in medieval Fujian province.[219]
Besides existing buildings and technical literature of building manuals, Song dynasty artwork portraying cityscapes and other buildings aid modern-day scholars in their attempts to reconstruct and realize the nuances of Song architecture. Song dynasty artists such as Li Cheng, Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, Zhang Zeduan, Emperor Huizong of Song, and Ma Lin painted close-up depictions of buildings as well as large expanses of cityscapes featuring arched bridges, halls and pavilions, pagoda towers, and distinct Chinese city walls. The scientist and statesman Shen Kuo was known for his criticism relating to architecture, saying that it was more important for an artist to capture a holistic view of a landscape than it was to focus on the angles and corners of buildings.[220] For example, Shen criticized the work of the painter Li Cheng for failing to observe the principle of "seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large" in portraying buildings.[220]
There were also pyramidal tomb structures in the Song era, such as the Song imperial tombs located in Gongxian, Henan.[221] About 100 km (62 mi) from Gongxian is another Song dynasty tomb at Baisha, which features "elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction, from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets, that adorn interior walls."[221] The two large chambers of the Baisha tomb also feature conical-shaped roofs.[222] Flanking the avenues leading to these tombs are lines of Song dynasty stone statues of officials, tomb guardians, animals, and legendary creatures.
Archaeology
In addition to the Song gentry's antiquarian pursuits of art collecting, scholar-officials during the Song became highly interested in retrieving ancient relics from archaeological sites, in order to revive the use of ancient vessels in ceremonies of state ritual.
Despite the gentry's overriding interest in archaeology simply for reviving ancient state rituals, some of Shen's peers took a similar approach to the study of archaeology. His contemporary
See also
- Emperors' family tree
- Four Great Books of Song
- House of Zhao
- Lu You
- Shao Yong
- Tang Clan
- Taxation in premodern China
- Tianchao Daguo
- Tiger Cave Kiln
- Timeline of the Song dynasty
- Wang Chongyang
- Water Margin
- Wen Tianxiang
- Zeng Gong
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- ^ Gernet 1962, p. 38.
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- ^ Golas 1980.
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{{citation}}
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Further reading
- Bol, Peter K. (1992). "This Culture of Ours": Intellectual Transitions in T'ang and Sung China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1920-9.
- Cotterell, Arthur (2007), The Imperial Capitals of China – An Inside View of the Celestial Empire, London: Pimlico, ISBN 978-1-84595-009-5
- Gascoigne, Bamber (2003), The Dynasties of China: A History, New York: Carroll & Graf, ISBN 978-1-84119-791-3
- Gernet, Jacques (1982), A history of Chinese civilization, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-24130-4
- Kruger, Rayne (2003), All Under Heaven: A Complete History of China, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-86533-0
- Kuhn, Dieter (2009). The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03146-3.
- Rossabi, Morris (1983). China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04383-1.
External links
- Song dynasty at China Heritage Quarterly
- Song dynasty at bcps.org
- Song and Liao artwork
- Song dynasty art with video commentary
- The Newly Compiled Overall Geographical Survey