Northern mockingbird
Northern mockingbird | |
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An adult in New York City | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Passeriformes |
Family: | Mimidae |
Genus: | Mimus |
Species: | M. polyglottos
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Binomial name | |
Mimus polyglottos | |
Northern mockingbird range Breeding range Year-round range
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Synonyms | |
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The northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) is a mockingbird commonly found in North America. This bird is mainly a permanent resident, but northern birds may move south during harsh weather. This species has rarely been observed in Europe. This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Turdus polyglottos. The northern mockingbird is known for its mimicking ability, as reflected by the meaning of its scientific name, "many-tongued mimic". The northern mockingbird has gray to brown upper feathers and a paler belly. Its tail and wings have white patches which are visible in flight.[2]
The northern mockingbird is an
The northern mockingbird is known for its intelligence. Multiple studies have demonstrated the bird's capability to identify individual humans, particularly noting those who had previously been intruders or threats.[3][4] Birds also recognize their breeding spots and return to areas in which they had greatest success in previous years. Urban birds are more likely to demonstrate this behavior.
The mockingbird is influential in United States culture, being the state bird of five states, appearing in book titles, songs and lullabies, and making other appearances in popular culture.
Taxonomy
Swedish zoologist
This species is categorized as the northern mockingbird as the closest living relative to M. gilvus.[9][10]
Subspecies
There are three recognized subspecies for the northern mockingbird.[11][12] There have been proposed races from the Bahamas and Haiti placed under the orpheus section.[12]
- M. p. polyglottos (Linnaeus, 1758): generally found in the eastern portion of North America ranging from Nova Scotia to Nebraska, to as far south as Texas and Florida.[11][12]
- M. p. leucopterus, the western mockingbird, (Vigors, 1839): generally found in the western portion of North America ranging from northwestern Nebraska and western Texas to the Pacific Coast, and south to Mexico (the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), and Socorro Island.[11][12] It is larger than M. p. polyglottos and has a slightly shorter tail, upperparts are more buff and paler, underparts have a stronger buff pigment.[11]
- M. p. orpheus (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Bahamas to the Greater Antilles, also the Cayman and Virgin Islands.[12] Similar to M. m. polyglottos except smaller, a paler shade of gray on its back, and underparts with practically little, if any buff at all.[11]
Description
The northern mockingbird is a medium-sized mimid that has long legs and tail.[13] Males and females look alike.[14] Its upper parts are colored gray, while its underparts have a white or whitish-gray color.[15] It has parallel wing bars on the half of the wings connected near the white patch giving it a distinctive appearance in flight.[15] The black central rectrices and typical white lateral rectrices are also noticeable in flight.[15] The iris is usually a light green-yellow or a yellow, but there have been instances of an orange color.[11] The bill is black with a brownish black appearance at the base.[11] The juvenile appearance is marked by its streaks on its back, distinguished spots and streaks on its chest, and a gray or grayish-green iris.[11]
Northern mockingbirds measure from 20.5 to 28 cm (8.1 to 11.0 in) including a tail almost as long as its body. The wingspan can range from 31–38 cm (12–15 in) and body mass is from 40–58 g (1.4–2.0 oz). Males tend to be slightly larger than females.
The northern mockingbird's lifespan is observed to be up to 8 years, but captive birds can live up to 20 years.[18]
Distribution and habitat
The mockingbird's breeding range is from
In the 19th century, the range of the mockingbird expanded northward towards provinces such as
The mockingbird's habitat varies by location, but it prefers open areas with sparse vegetation. In the eastern regions, suburban and urban areas such as parks and gardens are frequent residential areas. It has an affinity for mowed lawns with shrubs within proximity for shade and nesting.[15][19] In western regions, desert scrub and chaparral are among its preferred habitats. When foraging for food, it prefers short grass.[15] This bird does not nest in densely forested areas,[11][23] and generally resides in the same habitats year round.[19]
Behavior
Diet
The northern mockingbird is an
These birds forage on the ground or in vegetation; they also fly down from a perch to capture food.[15] While foraging, they frequently spread their wings in a peculiar two-step motion to display the white patches. There is disagreement among ornithologists over the purpose of this behavior, with hypotheses ranging from deceleration to intimidation of predators or prey.[28][29]
Breeding
Both the male and female of the species reach sexual maturity after one year of life. The breeding season occurs in the spring and early summer.[13] The males arrive before the beginning of the season to establish their territories. They may demonstrate or contest the edges of a territory using a boundary dance in which males, typically on the ground, face each other and hop side to side, sometimes fighting, until one flies away.[30][31] The males use a series of courtship displays to attract the females to their sites.[13] They run around the area either to showcase their territory to the females or to pursue the females. The males also engage in flight to showcase their wings.[13] They sing and call as they perform all of these displays. The species can remain monogamous for many years, but incidents of polygyny and bigamy have been reported to occur during a single bird's lifetime.[32][33]
Both the male and female are involved in the nest building.[34] The male does most of the work, while the female perches on the shrub or tree where the nest is being built to watch for predators. The nest is built approximately three to ten feet above the ground.[34] The outer part of the nest is composed of twigs, while the inner part is lined with grasses, dead leaves, moss, or artificial fibers. The eggs are a light blue or greenish color and speckled with dots.[16] The female lays three to five eggs, and she incubates them for nearly two weeks. Once the eggs are hatched, both the male and female will feed the chicks.[34]
The birds aggressively defend their nests and surrounding areas against other birds and animals.[34] When a predator is persistent, mockingbirds from neighboring territories may be summoned by distinct calls to join the defense. Other birds may gather to watch as the mockingbirds drive away the intruder. In addition to harassing domestic cats and dogs that they consider a threat,[13] mockingbirds will at times target humans. The birds are bold, and will attack much larger birds, even hawks. One incident in Tulsa, Oklahoma involving a postal carrier resulted in the distribution of a warning letter to residents.[35]
The northern mockingbird pairs hatch about two to four broods a year. In one breeding attempt, the northern mockingbird lays an average of four eggs.[13] They are pale blue or greenish white with red or brown blotches, and measure about 25 by 18 millimetres (0.98 by 0.71 in). They hatch after about 11 to 14 days of incubation by the female.[36] After about 10 to 15 days of life, the offspring become independent.[13]
Sexual selection
Northern mockingbirds are famous for their song repertoires. Studies have shown that males sing songs at the beginning of breeding season to attract females.[37] Unmated males sing songs in more directions and sing more bouts than mated males. In addition, unmated males perform more flight displays than mated males.[15] The mockingbirds usually nest several times during one breeding season.[38] Depending on the stage of breeding and the mating status, a male mockingbird will vary his song production. The unmated male keeps close track of this change. He sings in one direction when he perceives a chance to lure a female from the nest of the mated male.[37] Unmated males are also more likely to use elevated perches to make their songs audible farther away.[37] Though the mockingbirds are socially monogamous, mated males have been known to sing to attract additional mates.[32]
An observational study by Logan demonstrates that the female is continuously evaluating the quality of the male and his territory.[39] The assessment is usually triggered by the arrival of a new male in a neighboring territory at the beginning of a new breeding season. In those cases, the mated female is constantly seen flying over both the original and the new male's territory, evaluating the qualities of both territories and exchanging calls with both males.[39] The social mate displays aggressive behaviors towards the female, while the new male shows less aggression and sings softer songs.[39] At the same time, both the mated male and the new male will fly over other territories to attract other females as well. Separation, mate switching and extra-pair matings do occur in northern mockingbirds.[15][39]
Sex allocation
Northern mockingbirds adjust the sex ratio of their offspring according to the food availability and population density. Male offspring usually require more parental investment. There is therefore a bias for bearing the costlier sex at the beginning of a breeding season when the food is abundant.
Mating
Northern mockingbirds are socially monogamous. The sexes look alike except that the male is slightly larger than the female. Mutual mate choice is exhibited in northern mockingbirds.[43] Both males and females prefer mates that are more aggressive towards intruders, and so exhibit greater parental investment. However, males are more defensive of their nests than females. In a population where male breeding adults outnumber female breeding adults, females have more freedom in choosing their mates.[43] In these cases, these female breeders have the option of changing mates within a breeding season if the first male does not provide a high level of parental care, which includes feeding and nest defense.[44] High nesting success is associated with highly aggressive males attacking intruders in the territory, and so these males are preferred by females.[44]
Parental care
Northern mockingbirds are
A recent study shows that both food availability and temperature affect the parental
Mockingbird nests are also often parasitized by
Ontogeny
A laboratory observation of 38 mockingbird nestlings and fledglings (thirty-five and three, respectively) recorded the behavioral development of young mockingbirds. Notable milestones, including the eyes opening, soft vocalizations, begging, and preening, began within the first six days of life. Variation in begging and more compact movements such as perching, fear crouching, and stretching appeared by the ninth day. Wing-flashing, bathing, flight, and leaving the nest happened within seventeen days (nest leaving occurred within 11 to 13 days). Improvements of flight, walking and self-feeding took place within forty days. Agonistic behavior increased during the juvenile stages, to the extent that one of two siblings living in the same area was likely killed by the other.[48]
Song and calls
Although many species of bird imitate the vocalizations of other birds, the northern mockingbird is the species best known in North America for doing so. Among the vocalizations it imitates are songs of the
The northern mockingbird's mimicry is likely to serve as a form of sexual selection through which competition between males and female choice influence a bird's song repertoire size.[51] A 2013 study attempted to determine model selection in vocal mimics, and the data suggested that mimicry in the mockingbird resulted from the bird being genetically predisposed to learning vocalizations with acoustic characteristics such as an enlarged auditory template.[49]
Both male and female mockingbirds sing, with the latter being generally quieter and less vocal. Male commencement of singing is in late January to February and continues into the summer and the establishing of territory into the fall. Frequency in female singing is more sporadic, as it sings less often in the summer and fall, and only sings when the male is away from the territory.[15] The mockingbird also possesses a large song repertoire that ranges from 43 to 203 song types and the size varies by region. Repertoire sizes ranged from 14 to 150 types in Texas, and two studies of mockingbirds in Florida rounded estimates to 134 and 200, approximately.[15] It continually expands its repertoire during its life,[15] though it pales in comparison to mimids such as the brown thrasher.[52]
There are four recognized calls for the mockingbird: the nest relief call, hew call, chat or chatburst, and the
Predation and threats
Adult mockingbirds can fall victim to birds of prey such as the great horned owl, screech owl and sharp-shinned hawk, though their tenacious behavior makes them less likely to be captured. Scrub-jays also have killed and eaten mockingbirds. Snakes rarely capture incubating females. Fledgelings have been prey to domestic cats, red-tailed hawks, and crows. Eggs and nestlings are consumed by blue jays, fish crows and American crows, red-tailed hawks, swallow-tailed kites, snakes, squirrels, and cats. Blowfly larvae and Haemoproteus have been found in Florida and Arizona populations, respectively.[19]
Winter storms limit the expansion of mockingbirds in their range. The storms have played a role in the declining of the populations in Ohio (where it has since recovered), Michigan, Minnesota and likely in Quebec. Dry seasons also affect the mockingbird populations in Arizona.[19]
Intelligence
In a paper published in 2009, researchers found that mockingbirds were able to recall an individual human who, earlier in the study, had approached and threatened the mockingbirds' nest. Researchers had one participant stand near a mockingbird nest and touch it, while others avoided the nest. Later, the mockingbirds recognized the intruder and exhibited defensive behavior, while ignoring the other individuals.[3] A similar paper published in 2023 had several participants exhibit varying levels of threatening behavior towards nesting mockingbirds. During a 3 day training period, "high threat" participants were instructed to touch the nest daily while accompanied by a "medium threat" participant who stood 3 meters away. "Low threat" participants approached the nest separately and also stood 3 meters away for 10 minutes. When flushed from their nests by participants during a testing period, the mockingbirds retreated further from individuals that exhibited more threatening behavior during the training period.[4]
Adaptation to urban habitats
The northern mockingbird is a species that is found in both urban and rural habitats. There are now more northern mockingbirds living in urban habitats than non-urban environments, so they are consequently known as an urban-positive species.
In culture
This bird features in the title and central metaphor of the novel To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee. In that novel, mockingbirds are portrayed as innocent and generous, and two of the major characters, Atticus Finch and Miss Maudie, say it is a sin to kill a mockingbird because "they don't do one thing for us but make music for us to enjoy. They don't eat up people's gardens, don't nest in corncribs, they don't do one thing but sing their hearts out for us."[56]
The Hunger Games franchise depicts "mockingjays," mockingbirds hybridized with jabberjays, genetically engineered birds that could memorize and repeat entire human conversations. These birds appear throughout the series as a rebellious symbol.[57]
The song of the northern mockingbird inspired many American folk songs of the mid-19th century, such as "Listen to the Mocking Bird".[58]
Thomas Jefferson had several pet mockingbirds, including a bird named "Dick".[59][60]
In the fictional Neighborhood of Make-Believe on Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, one of King Friday's "pets" is a wooden northern mockingbird on a stick, which he refers to by the scientific name Mimus polyglottos.[61][62]
In 1951, Patti Page, a popular vocalist, recorded "Mockin' Bird Hill". Sold in 10" 78 RPM format. The song reached #2 on Billboard ranking and reflected gentle postwar values of the period.
State bird
The northern mockingbird is the state bird of Arkansas,[63] Florida,[64] Mississippi,[65] Tennessee,[66] and Texas,[67] and previously the state bird of South Carolina.[68]
See also
References
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- ^ "Northern Mockingbird". All About Birds.
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- ^ Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 169.
T. obscure cinereus, subtus pallide cinereus, macula alarum albida
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- ^ Check-list of North American Birds. American Ornithologists' Union. 1998.
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- ^ a b c d e "Northern Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos)". Handbook of the Birds of the World. Internet Bird Collection. Archived from the original on 2012-02-21. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ a b c d e f g Breitmeyer, E. (2007). "Mimus Polyglottos". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
- ^ "Northern Mockingbird – Mimus polyglottos". Nature Works. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- ^ doi:10.2173/bna.7.
- ^ a b "Northern Mockingbird". The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. All About Birds. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
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- ^ "Northern Mockingbird". Wildlife. National Wildlife Federation. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "The Birds of North America Online: Northern Mockingbird".
- ^ "The AOU Check-list of North American Birds, 7th Edition:Incertae Sedis – Mimidae". The Auk. 7: 416–522. 1998.
- ^ "Britain's third Northern Mockingbird found in Devon". Bird Guides. 2021-04-04. Retrieved 2021-04-04.
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- ^ a b "Mimus polyglottos (Northern Mockingbird)" (PDF). Sta.uwi.edu. Retrieved 2022-03-24.
- ^ a b c "Mimus polyglottos (Northern mockingbird)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ "Protecting Your Tomatoes From Mockingbirds". Vegetable Gardener.
- ^ "Attracting Mockingbirds to Your Backyard Garden". Birds Forever. Archived from the original on 2021-02-20. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ Horwich, R.H. (1965). "An Ontogeny of Wing-flashing in the Mockingbird with Reference to Other Behaviors". The Wilson Bulletin. 3. 77: 264–281.
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- ^ Overall, Michael (22 July 2007). "Wild bird warning:Mockingbird stalks mail carrier". Tulsa World. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
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- ^ a b c d Logan, C.A. (1997). "Mate-reassessment in an Already-mated Female Northern Mockingbird" (PDF). The Chat. 2. 61: 108–112.
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- ^ Brigida, Danielle (March 16, 2012). "Is the Mockingjay from The Hunger Games Real?". National Wildlife Federation. Retrieved October 11, 2023.
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- ^ "Inside the State Dining Room-History & Tours". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2022-03-24.
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- ^ State Birds, Tennessee Secretary of State, retrieved May 29, 2019
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External links
- Northern Mockingbird Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
- "Northern Mockingbird media". Internet Bird Collection.
- Northern Mockingbird – Mimus polyglottos – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
- Learn Bird Songs: Songs of the Northern Mockingbird from the Lang Elliott website Learnbirdsongs.com
- Northern Mockingbird Bird Sound at Florida Museum of Natural History
- Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). . . Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co.
- Northern Mockingbird photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)