Maghreb
Maghreb المغرب | |
---|---|
Countries and territories | |
Major regional organizations | African Union, Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Community of Sahel–Saharan States, Union for the Mediterranean |
Population | 105,095,436 (2021*)[2] |
Population density | 16.72/km2 |
Area | 6,045,741 km2 (2,334,274 sq mi) |
GDP PPP | $1.299 trillion (2020) |
GDP PPP per capita | $12,628 (2020) |
GDP nominal | $382.780 billion (2020) |
GDP nominal per capita | $3,720 (2020) |
Languages |
|
Religion | Sunni Islam, Christianity, and Judaism |
The Maghreb (
The Maghreb is usually defined as encompassing much of the northern part of Africa, including a large portion of the
Before the establishment of modern nation states in the region during the 20th century, the Maghreb most commonly referred to a smaller area, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the south. It often also included the territory of eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century, the term "Maghreb" was used to refer to the western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in particular.[7]
During the rule of the
Centuries of
Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia established the
Terminology
The toponym
Medieval Muslim historians and geographers divided the Maghreb region into three areas: al-Maghrib al-Adna (the near Maghrib; also known as Ifriqiya), which included the lands extending from Alexandria to Tarabulus (modern-day Tripoli) in the west; al-Maghrib al-Awsat (the middle Maghrib), which extended from Tripoli to Bijaya (Béjaïa); and al-Maghrib al-Aqsa (the far Maghrib), which extended from Tahart (Tiaret) to the Atlantic Ocean.[11] Historians and geographers disagreed, however, over the definition of the eastern boundary. Some authors place it at the sea of Kulzum (the Red Sea) and thus include Egypt and Barqa (Cyrenaica) in the Maghreb. Ibn Khaldun does not accept this definition because, he says, the inhabitants of the Maghreb do not consider Egypt and Barqa as forming part of Maghrib. The latter commences only at the province of Tripoli and includes the districts of which the country of the Berbers was composed in former times. Later Maghribi writers repeated the definition of Ibn Khaldun, with a few variations in details.[14]
The term Maghrib is used in opposition to Mashriq in a sense near to that which it had in medieval times, but it also denotes simply Morocco when the full al-Maghrib al-Aqsa is abbreviated. Certain politicians seek a political union of the North African countries, which they call al-Maghrib al-Kabir (the grand Maghrib) or al-Maghrib al-Arabi (the Arab Maghrib).[14][15]
History
Prehistory
Around 3,500 BC, changes in the tilt of the
Antiquity
Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains (stretching from present-day Morocco to present-day Tunisia) and by the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Maghreb have long had commercial and cultural ties across the Mediterranean Sea to the inhabitants of the regions of
Phoenicians and Carthaginians arrived for trade. The main Berber and Phoenician settlements centered in the
The pressure put on the
After the advent of Islam in Mediterranean Africa in the period from 639 to 700 AD, Arabs took control of the entire Maghreb region.
Middle Ages
The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early
The invasion of the
Early modern history
Modern history
After the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized by France, Spain and later Italy.
Today, more than two and a half million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, many from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, as of 1999 there were 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (defined as having at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia).[33] A 2003 estimate suggests six million French residents were ethnic Maghrebi.[34][35]
Population
Ethnic groups
The Maghreb is primarily inhabited by peoples of
Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In northern coastal towns, in particular, several waves of European immigrants influenced the population in the Medieval era. Most notable were the
Historically, the Maghreb was home to significant historic
Another significant group is Turks, who migrated with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.
Africans from south of the Sahara joined the population mix during centuries of
In Algeria especially, a large European minority, known as the "
In comparison to the population of France, the Maghrebi population was one-eighth of France's population in 1800, one-quarter in 1900, and equal in 2000. The Maghreb is home to 1% of the global population as of 2010.[48]
Genetics
The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be modulated chiefly by geography. The Y-DNA Haplogroups
Haplogroup E
Haplogroup J1
Haplogroup J-M267 is another very common haplogroup in the Maghreb, being the second most-frequent haplogroup in the Maghreb.[59] It originated in the Middle East, and its highest frequency of 30%–62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East.[59] A study found out that the majority of J1 (Eu10) chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE. The J-M267 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from early Neolithic dispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions of Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, during which both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs added to the heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot.[59] A study from 2017 suggested that these Arab migrations were a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies.[60]
Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with the Middle East, and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. The recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb increased genetic similarities between Maghrebis and Middle Easterners.[61] Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of Maghrebis and has spread from the Arabian Peninsula, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of Maghrebis. A study from 2021 has shown that the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in the Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia, who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%.[62] According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians and 34.2% in Tunisians.[63]
Table
The Maghreb
Haplogroup | Marker | Sahara/Mauritania | Morocco | Algeria | Tunisia | Libya |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | 189 | 760 | 156 | 601 | – | |
A | – | 0.26 | – | – | – | |
B | 0.53 | 0.66 | – | 0.17 | – | |
C | – | – | – | – | – | |
DE | – | – | – | – | – | |
E1a | M33 | 5.29 | 2.76 | 0.64 | 0.5 | – |
E1b1a | M2 | 6.88 | 3.29 | 5.13 | 0.67 | – |
E1b1b1 | M35 | – | 4.21 | 0.64 | 1.66 | – |
E1b1b1a | M78 | – | 0.79 | 1.92 | – | – |
E1b1b1a1 | V12 | – | 0.26 | 0.64 | – | – |
E1b1b1a1b | V32 | – | – | – | – | – |
E1b1b1a2 | V13 | – | 0.26 | 0.64 | – | – |
E1b1b1a3 | V22 | – | 1.84 | 1.28 | 3 | – |
E1b1b1a4 | V65 | – | 3.68 | 1.92 | 3.16 | – |
E1b1b1b | M81 | 65.56 | 67.37 | 64.23 | 72.73 | – |
E1b1b1c | M34 | 11.11 | 0.66 | 1.28 | 1.16 | – |
F | M89 | – | 0.26 | 3.85 | 2.66 | – |
G | M201 | – | 0.66 | – | 0.17 | – |
H | M69 | – | – | – | – | – |
I | – | 0.13 | – | 0.17 | – | |
J1 | 3.23 | 6.32 | 1.79 | 6.64 | – | |
J2 | – | 1.32 | 4.49 | 2.83 | – | |
K | – | 0.53 | 0.64 | 0.33 | – | |
L | – | – | – | – | – | |
N | – | – | – | – | – | |
O | – | – | – | – | – | |
P, R | – | 0.26 | – | 0.33 | – | |
Q | – | – | 0.64 | – | – | |
R1a1 | – | – | 0.64 | 0.5 | – | |
R1b | M343 | – | – | – | – | – |
R1b1a | V88 | 6.88 | 0.92 | 2.56 | 1.83 | – |
R1b1b | M269 | 0.53 | 3.55 | 7.04 | 0.33 | – |
R2 | – | – | – | – | – | |
T | M70 | – | – | – | 1.16 | – |
Religion
The original religions of the peoples of the Maghreb seem
Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in the Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century of the common era, the area had become a center of Phoenician-speaking Christianity. Its bishops spoke and wrote in
Islam
Islam arrived in 647 and challenged the domination of Christianity. The first permanent foothold of Islam was the founding in 667 of the city of Kairouan, in present-day Tunisia. Carthage fell to Muslims in 698 and the remainder of the region fell by 709. Islamization proceeded slowly.
From the end of the 7th century, over a period of more than 400 years, the region's peoples converted to Islam. Many left during this time for Italy, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 12th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Although there were numerous conversions after the conquest, Muslims did not become a majority until some time late in the 9th century. During the 10th century, Islam became by far the dominant religion in the region.
There was a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow the
Christianity
Communities of Christians, mostly
Prior to independence,
Recently, the Protestant community of Berber or Arab descent has grown significantly as additional individuals
A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to
In 2019, the proportion of
Maghrebi traders in Jewish history
In the 10th century, as the social and political environment in Baghdad became increasingly hostile to Jews, some Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especially Kairouan, Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribi, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean world. They passed this identification on from father to son. Their tight-knit pan-Maghreb community had the ability to use social sanctions as a credible alternative to legal recourse, which was weak at the time anyway. This unique institutional alternative permitted the Maghribis to very successfully participate in the Mediterranean trade.[102] This facilitated contacts between the Maghrebi and European Jewish communities, particularly in trade in the pre-colonial period. The most important points of contact were Livorno in Italy with its harbour frequented by Tunisian merchants and Marseille in France with its counterpart, the harbour for Algeria and Morocco. The Maghreb region produced spices and leather, from shoes to handbags. As many of the Maghrebi Jews were craftsmen and merchants, they had contact with their European customers.[103] Today, among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.[104][105]
Geography
Ecoregions
The Maghreb is divided into a
Mediterranean Maghreb
The portions of the Maghreb between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, along with coastal Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya, are home to Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. These ecoregions share many species of plants and animals with other portions of Mediterranean Basin. The southern extent of the Mediterranean Maghreb corresponds with the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet, or the southern range of the European Olive (Olea europea)[106] and Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima).[107]
- Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets(Morocco, Canary Islands (Spain), Western Sahara)
- Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia)
- Mediterranean woodlands and forests (Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia)
- Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Spain)
- Mediterranean High Atlas juniper steppe (Morocco)
Saharan Maghreb
The Sahara extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Its central part is hyper-arid and supports little plant or animal life, but the northern portion of the desert receives occasional winter rains, while the strip along the Atlantic coast receives moisture from marine fog, which nourishes a greater variety of plants and animals. The northern edge of the Sahara corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet, which is also the northern range of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera).[107]
- North Saharan steppe and woodlands: This ecoregion lies along the northern edge of the Sahara, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the Mediterranean Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square km (646,800 square miles) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.[108]
- Atlantic coastal desert: The Atlantic coastal desert occupies a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers 39,900 square kilometres (15,400 sq mi) in Western Sahara and Mauritania.[109]
- Sahara desert: This ecoregion covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg), stone plateaus (hamada), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square km (1,791,500 square miles) of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.[110]
- Chott Melghir in Algeria, and other areas of Egypt, Algeria, Mauritania, and Western Sahara.[111]
Culture
The countries of the Maghreb share many cultural similarities and traditions. Among these is a culinary tradition that Habib Bourguiba defined as Western Arab, where bread or couscous are the staple foods, as opposed to Eastern Arab, where bread, crushed wheat or white rice are the staple foods.[citation needed] In terms of food, some similarities beyond the starches are found throughout the Arab world.
Among other cultural and artistic traditions, jewellery of the Berber cultures worn by Amazigh women and made of silver,[112] beads and other applications was a common trait of Berber identities in large areas of the Maghreb up to the second half of the 20th century.[113]
In 2020, couscous was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.[114]
Economy
Maghreb countries by GDP (PPP)
List by the International Monetary Fund (2013) | List by the World Bank (2013) | List by the CIA World Factbook (2013) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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List by the International Monetary Fund (2019) | List by the World Bank (2017) | List by the CIA World Factbook (2017) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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|
Medieval regions
- Ifriqiya (currently Tunisia, Constantinois and Tripolitania)
- Djerid
- Sous
- M'zab
- Draa Valley
- Hodna
- Rif
- Tamesna
- Tripolitania
- Maghreb al-Awsat (Central Maghreb – currently Northern Algeria)
- Maghreb al-Aqsa (Western Maghreb – currently Morocco)
- Maghreb al-Adna (Eastern Maghreb – currently Libya and Tunisia)
See also
- Arab Maghreb Union
- Barbary Coast
- Berber people
- History of Algeria
- History of Libya
- History of Mauritania
- History of Morocco
- History of Tunisia
- History of Western Sahara
- Maghreb French
- Maghreb toponymy
- Maghrebi script
- Maghrebi Arabs
- Maghrebi Jews
- Mashriq, "place of sunrise", which contrasts Maghreb, "place of sunset"
- Miloud
- Moors
- Occident
- Mughrabi (disambiguation)
- Plazas de soberanía
- Tamazgha
- Sahel
- Juliette Bessis, Maghreb scholar
Notes
- ^ a b A disputed territory with undetermined political status.[1] Formerly Spanish Sahara up to 1976, administration is currently split between Morocco and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, both of which claim the entire territory. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic's administrative control is limited to approximately 20% of the territory, with the remaining 80% of the territory occupied by Morocco. The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara is the United Nations peacekeeping mission to the territory (see Western Sahara conflict).
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- ^ "Jewish Population Rises to 15.2 million Worldwide". Jewish agency. 15 September 2021. Archived from the original on 25 July 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
- ISBN 0-520-20809-9
- ^ ISBN 978-3-540-52171-6
- ^ "North Saharan steppe and woodlands". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
- ^ "Atlantic coastal desert". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
- ^ "Sahara desert". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
- ^ "Saharan halophytics". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archivedfrom the original on 20 June 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
- ^ See, for example, Rabaté, Marie-Rose (2015). Les bijoux du Maroc: du Haut-Atlas à la vallée du Draa. Paris: ACR ed. and Rabaté, Marie-Rose; Jacques Rabaté; Dominique Champault (1996). Bijoux du Maroc: du Haut Atlas à la vallée du Draa. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud/Le Fennec, as well as Gargouri-Sethom, Samira (1986). Le bijou traditionnel en Tunisie: femmes parées, femmes enchaînées. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud.
- ^ "UNESCO adds couscous to list of intangible world heritage". Al Jazeera English. 16 December 2020. Archived from the original on 8 August 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2022.