Maghreb

Coordinates: 30°N 5°E / 30°N 5°E / 30; 5
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30°N 5°E / 30°N 5°E / 30; 5

Maghreb
المغرب
Countries and territories
Major regional organizationsAfrican Union, Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Community of Sahel–Saharan States, Union for the Mediterranean
Population105,095,436 (2021*)[2]
Population density16.72/km2
Area6,045,741 km2 (2,334,274 sq mi)
GDP PPP$1.299 trillion (2020)
GDP PPP per capita$12,628 (2020)
GDP nominal$382.780 billion (2020)
GDP nominal per capita$3,720 (2020)
Languages
ReligionSunni Islam, Christianity, and Judaism

The Maghreb (

Arabic: اَلْمَغْرِبُ الْعَرَبِيُّ) and Northwest Africa,[4] is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb also includes the disputed territory of Western Sahara.[note 1]
As of 2018, the region had a population of over 100 million people.

The Maghreb is usually defined as encompassing much of the northern part of Africa, including a large portion of the

Sahara Desert, but excluding Egypt and the Sudan, which are considered to be located in the Mashriq — the eastern part of the Arab world. The traditional definition of the Maghreb — which restricted its scope to the Atlas Mountains and the coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya — was expanded in modern times to include Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara. During the era of Al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula (711–1492), the Maghreb's inhabitants — the Muslim Maghrebis — were known by Europeans as the "Moors".[5] The Greeks referred to the region as the "Land of the Atlas", referring to its Atlas Mountains.[6]

Before the establishment of modern nation states in the region during the 20th century, the Maghreb most commonly referred to a smaller area, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the south. It often also included the territory of eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century, the term "Maghreb" was used to refer to the western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in particular.[7]

During the rule of the

Marinids, Zayyanids, Hafsids and Wattasids, extending from the 8th to 13th centuries. The Ottoman Empire
also controlled parts of the region for a period.

Centuries of

Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region was ruled by European powers: France (Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania and most of Morocco), Spain (northern Morocco and Western Sahara), and Italy (Libya). Italy was expelled from North Africa by the Allies in World War II. Decolonization of the region continued in the decades thereafter, with violent conflicts such as the Algerian War, the Ifni War and the Western Sahara War
.

Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia established the

common market. The union implicitly included Western Sahara under Morocco's membership.[8] However, this progress was short-lived, and the union is now largely dormant. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco over Western Sahara re-emerged, reinforced by the unresolved border dispute between the two countries. These two conflicts have hindered progress on the union's joint goals.[9]

Terminology

The toponym

Arabic: أَقَالِيمُ ٱلْعَرَبِ) to refer to the lands of Arabia, Iraq, Upper Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Maghreb.[13] This constituted the earliest documented differentiation between the terms Maghreb and Gharb (Muslim lands west of the Abbasid capital, Baghdad). The former referred to the present-day Maghreb whereas the latter incorporated the Levant and Egypt in addition to the Maghreb.[10]

Medieval Muslim historians and geographers divided the Maghreb region into three areas: al-Maghrib al-Adna (the near Maghrib; also known as Ifriqiya), which included the lands extending from Alexandria to Tarabulus (modern-day Tripoli) in the west; al-Maghrib al-Awsat (the middle Maghrib), which extended from Tripoli to Bijaya (Béjaïa); and al-Maghrib al-Aqsa (the far Maghrib), which extended from Tahart (Tiaret) to the Atlantic Ocean.[11] Historians and geographers disagreed, however, over the definition of the eastern boundary. Some authors place it at the sea of Kulzum (the Red Sea) and thus include Egypt and Barqa (Cyrenaica) in the Maghreb. Ibn Khaldun does not accept this definition because, he says, the inhabitants of the Maghreb do not consider Egypt and Barqa as forming part of Maghrib. The latter commences only at the province of Tripoli and includes the districts of which the country of the Berbers was composed in former times. Later Maghribi writers repeated the definition of Ibn Khaldun, with a few variations in details.[14]

The term Maghrib is used in opposition to Mashriq in a sense near to that which it had in medieval times, but it also denotes simply Morocco when the full al-Maghrib al-Aqsa is abbreviated. Certain politicians seek a political union of the North African countries, which they call al-Maghrib al-Kabir (the grand Maghrib) or al-Maghrib al-Arabi (the Arab Maghrib).[14][15]

History

Maghreb head ornament (Morocco)

Prehistory

Around 3,500 BC, changes in the tilt of the

Berber people have inhabited western North Africa since at least 10,000 BC.[17]

Antiquity

Roman trireme on a mosaic in the Bardo Museum, Tunisia

Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains (stretching from present-day Morocco to present-day Tunisia) and by the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Maghreb have long had commercial and cultural ties across the Mediterranean Sea to the inhabitants of the regions of

Phoenicians in the 1st millennium BC. (According to tradition, the Phoenicians founded their colony of Carthage
(in present-day Tunisia) c. 800 BC).

Phoenicians and Carthaginians arrived for trade. The main Berber and Phoenician settlements centered in the

Massinissa (later King of Numidia, r. 202 – 148 BC) and of Carthage's eastern Numidian Massylii client-allies. Some of the most mountainous regions, such as the Moroccan Rif, remained outside Roman control. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent.[18][19][20][21] The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.[22][23]

The pressure put on the

Byzantine rule lasted for 150 years. The Berbers contested the extent of Byzantine control.[24]

After the advent of Islam in Mediterranean Africa in the period from 639 to 700 AD, Arabs took control of the entire Maghreb region.

Middle Ages

Great Mosque of Kairouan, founded by the Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi (in 670), is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb city of Kairouan, Tunisia.[25]

The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early

Caliphal
control in favour of their own interpretation of Islam.

The invasion of the

Shiism in the 11th century. Throughout this period, the Maghreb most often was divided into three states, roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and Tunisia. The Maghreb region was occasionally briefly unified, as under the Almohad Caliphate, Fatimids and briefly under the Zirids. The Hammadids also managed to conquer land in all countries in the Maghreb region.[30][31][32]

Early modern history

1707 map of northwest Africa by Guillaume Delisle, including the Maghreb. After the Middle Ages, the Ottoman Empire loosely controlled the area east of Morocco.

Modern history

After the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized by France, Spain and later Italy.

Today, more than two and a half million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, many from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, as of 1999 there were 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (defined as having at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia).[33] A 2003 estimate suggests six million French residents were ethnic Maghrebi.[34][35]

Population

People of Maghreb

Ethnic groups

The Maghreb is primarily inhabited by peoples of

Arab migration to the Maghreb
since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs.

Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In northern coastal towns, in particular, several waves of European immigrants influenced the population in the Medieval era. Most notable were the

corsairs. In some cases, they were returned to families after being ransomed; in others, they were used as slaves or assimilated and adopted into tribes.[44]

Historically, the Maghreb was home to significant historic

Maghrebim
, who predated the 7th-century introduction and conversion of the region to Islam. These were later augmented by Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal who, fleeing the Spanish Catholic Inquisition of the 15th and 16th centuries, established a presence in North Africa. They settled primarily in the urban trading centers.

Another significant group is Turks, who migrated with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

Africans from south of the Sahara joined the population mix during centuries of

Haratine
.

In Algeria especially, a large European minority, known as the "

Catholic, but including 130,000 Algerian Jews) in Algeria, 10 per cent of the population.[46] They established farms and businesses. The overwhelming majority of these, however, left Algeria during and following the war for independence.[47]

In comparison to the population of France, the Maghrebi population was one-eighth of France's population in 1800, one-quarter in 1900, and equal in 2000. The Maghreb is home to 1% of the global population as of 2010.[48]

Genetics

The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be modulated chiefly by geography. The Y-DNA Haplogroups

J1,[49][50] which is typically Middle Eastern and originates in the Arabian peninsula, can reach frequencies of up to 35% in the region.[51][52] Its highest density is found in the Arabian Peninsula.[52] Haplogroup R1,[53]
a Eurasian marker, has also been observed in the Maghreb, though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arabic speakers and Berber-speakers.

Haplogroup E

E1b1b1a has been observed at low to moderate frequencies among Berber populations with significantly higher frequencies observed in Northeast Africa relative to Northwest Africa.[55][56][57] Loosdrecht et al. 2018 demonstrated that E1b1b is most likely indigenous to North Africa and migrated from North Africa to the Near East during the Paleolithic.[58]

Haplogroup J1

Distribution of Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup J-M267 is another very common haplogroup in the Maghreb, being the second most-frequent haplogroup in the Maghreb.[59] It originated in the Middle East, and its highest frequency of 30%–62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East.[59] A study found out that the majority of J1 (Eu10) chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE. The J-M267 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from early Neolithic dispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions of Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, during which both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs added to the heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot.[59] A study from 2017 suggested that these Arab migrations were a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies.[60]

Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with the Middle East, and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. The recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb increased genetic similarities between Maghrebis and Middle Easterners.[61] Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of Maghrebis and has spread from the Arabian Peninsula, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of Maghrebis. A study from 2021 has shown that the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in the Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia, who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%.[62] According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians and 34.2% in Tunisians.[63]

Table

The Maghreb

E1b1b and J comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes:[64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71]

Haplogroup Marker Sahara/Mauritania Morocco Algeria Tunisia Libya
n 189 760 156 601
A 0.26
B 0.53 0.66 0.17
C
DE
E1a M33 5.29 2.76 0.64 0.5
E1b1a M2 6.88 3.29 5.13 0.67
E1b1b1 M35 4.21 0.64 1.66
E1b1b1a M78 0.79 1.92
E1b1b1a1 V12 0.26 0.64
E1b1b1a1b V32
E1b1b1a2 V13 0.26 0.64
E1b1b1a3 V22 1.84 1.28 3
E1b1b1a4 V65 3.68 1.92 3.16
E1b1b1b M81 65.56 67.37 64.23 72.73
E1b1b1c M34 11.11 0.66 1.28 1.16
F M89 0.26 3.85 2.66
G M201 0.66 0.17
H M69
I 0.13 0.17
J1 3.23 6.32 1.79 6.64
J2 1.32 4.49 2.83
K 0.53 0.64 0.33
L
N
O
P, R 0.26 0.33
Q 0.64
R1a1 0.64 0.5
R1b M343
R1b1a V88 6.88 0.92 2.56 1.83
R1b1b M269 0.53 3.55 7.04 0.33
R2
T M70 1.16

Religion

The mausoleum of Madghacen

The original religions of the peoples of the Maghreb seem

Amazigh
cultures that antedated all Egyptian and eastern Asian, northern Mediterranean, and European influences.

Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in the Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century of the common era, the area had become a center of Phoenician-speaking Christianity. Its bishops spoke and wrote in

Christian Berber kingdoms.[75]

Islam

al-Qarawiyyin Mosque

Islam arrived in 647 and challenged the domination of Christianity. The first permanent foothold of Islam was the founding in 667 of the city of Kairouan, in present-day Tunisia. Carthage fell to Muslims in 698 and the remainder of the region fell by 709. Islamization proceeded slowly.

From the end of the 7th century, over a period of more than 400 years, the region's peoples converted to Islam. Many left during this time for Italy, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 12th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Although there were numerous conversions after the conquest, Muslims did not become a majority until some time late in the 9th century. During the 10th century, Islam became by far the dominant religion in the region.

Benedict VII (974–983), a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. From the 10th century, Christianity declined in the region.[77] By the end of the 11th century, only two bishops were left in Carthage and Hippo Regius. Pope Gregory VII
(1073–85) consecrated a new bishop for Hippo. Christianity seems to have suffered several shocks that led to its demise. First, many upper-class, urban-dwelling, Latin-speaking Christians left for Europe after the Muslim conquest. The second major influence was the large-scale conversions to Islam from the end of the 9th century. Many Christians of a much reduced community departed in the mid-11th century, and remnants were evacuated in the 12th by the Norman rulers of Sicily. The Latin-African language lingered a while longer.

There was a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow the

zaouias
traditionally helped teach basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.

Christianity

Christian Berber family from Kabylia

Communities of Christians, mostly

French colonialism.[84][85]

Prior to independence,

Europeans.[83] In religion, most of the pieds-noirs in Maghreb are Catholic. Due to the exodus of the pieds-noirs in the 1960s, more North African Christians of Berber or Arab descent now live in France than in Greater Maghreb. Prior to independence, the European Catholic settlers had historic legacy and powerful presence in Maghreb countries.[83]

Recently, the Protestant community of Berber or Arab descent has grown significantly as additional individuals

Kabylie,[89] Morocco,[90][91] and in Tunisia.[92] The Catholic population in Libya is estimated to number 100,000, The Catholics are the largest Christian denomination, followed by c. 60,000 Copts and a small number of Anglicans.[93]

A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to

Tunisian Muslims have converted to Christianity.[92] A 2015 study estimate some 1,500 believers in Christ from a Muslim background living in Libya.[98]

In 2019, the proportion of

Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Ceuta, in 2019, the proportion of Ceutans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 60.0%.[101] The Roman Catholic churches in Ceuta belong to the Diocese of Cádiz y Ceuta
.

Maghrebi traders in Jewish history

In the 10th century, as the social and political environment in Baghdad became increasingly hostile to Jews, some Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especially Kairouan, Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribi, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean world. They passed this identification on from father to son. Their tight-knit pan-Maghreb community had the ability to use social sanctions as a credible alternative to legal recourse, which was weak at the time anyway. This unique institutional alternative permitted the Maghribis to very successfully participate in the Mediterranean trade.[102] This facilitated contacts between the Maghrebi and European Jewish communities, particularly in trade in the pre-colonial period. The most important points of contact were Livorno in Italy with its harbour frequented by Tunisian merchants and Marseille in France with its counterpart, the harbour for Algeria and Morocco. The Maghreb region produced spices and leather, from shoes to handbags. As many of the Maghrebi Jews were craftsmen and merchants, they had contact with their European customers.[103] Today, among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.[104][105]

Geography

Ecoregions

The Maghreb is divided into a

arid Sahara in the south. The Maghreb's variations in elevation, rainfall, temperature, and soils give rise to distinct communities of plants and animals. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) identifies several distinct ecoregions
in the Maghreb.

Mediterranean Maghreb

Dwarf fan palm, grown in Maghrebi countries

The portions of the Maghreb between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, along with coastal Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya, are home to Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. These ecoregions share many species of plants and animals with other portions of Mediterranean Basin. The southern extent of the Mediterranean Maghreb corresponds with the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet, or the southern range of the European Olive (Olea europea)[106] and Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima).[107]

Saharan Maghreb

The Sahara extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Its central part is hyper-arid and supports little plant or animal life, but the northern portion of the desert receives occasional winter rains, while the strip along the Atlantic coast receives moisture from marine fog, which nourishes a greater variety of plants and animals. The northern edge of the Sahara corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet, which is also the northern range of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera).[107]

Culture

Cuscus

The countries of the Maghreb share many cultural similarities and traditions. Among these is a culinary tradition that Habib Bourguiba defined as Western Arab, where bread or couscous are the staple foods, as opposed to Eastern Arab, where bread, crushed wheat or white rice are the staple foods.[citation needed] In terms of food, some similarities beyond the starches are found throughout the Arab world.

Among other cultural and artistic traditions, jewellery of the Berber cultures worn by Amazigh women and made of silver,[112] beads and other applications was a common trait of Berber identities in large areas of the Maghreb up to the second half of the 20th century.[113]

In 2020, couscous was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.[114]

Economy

Maghreb countries by GDP (PPP)

List by the International Monetary Fund (2013) List by the World Bank (2013) List by the CIA World Factbook (2013)
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
44 Algeria 285,541
58 Morocco 179,240
70 Tunisia 108,430
81 Libya 70,386
148 Mauritania 8,241
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
34 Algeria 421,626
55 Morocco 241,757
70 Libya 132,695
75 Tunisia 120,755
143 Mauritania 11,835
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
45 Algeria 284,700
58 Morocco 180,000
68 Tunisia 108,400
81 Libya 73,600
151 Mauritania 8,204
List by the International Monetary Fund (2019) List by the World Bank (2017) List by the CIA World Factbook (2017)
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
35 Algeria 681,396
54 Morocco 328,651
76 Tunisia 149,190
101 Libya 61,559
143 Mauritania 19,811
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
35 Algeria 631,150
55 Morocco 298,230
76 Tunisia 137,358
78 Libya 125,142
143 Mauritania 17,458
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M
35 Algeria 629,300
55 Morocco 300,100
76 Tunisia 135,900
102 Libya 63,140
148 Mauritania 17,370

Medieval regions

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b A disputed territory with undetermined political status.[1] Formerly Spanish Sahara up to 1976, administration is currently split between Morocco and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, both of which claim the entire territory. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic's administrative control is limited to approximately 20% of the territory, with the remaining 80% of the territory occupied by Morocco. The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara is the United Nations peacekeeping mission to the territory (see Western Sahara conflict).

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