North India

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North India
Northern India / The North
North India according to varied definitions
North India according to varied definitions
Country India
States and territories[1][2][3]
Other states sometimes included[n 1]
Largest cityDelhi
Most populous cities (2011)
Official languages

North India, also called Northern India or simply the North, is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of

Ganga-Yamuna Doab to the Thar Desert.[12] Historically, it may refer to the northern region of the Indian subcontinent where speakers of Indo-Aryan languages
form a prominent majority population.

The term North India has varying definitions. The Ministry of Home Affairs in its Northern Zonal Council Administrative division included the states of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Rajasthan and Union Territories of Chandigarh, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.[1][13] The Ministry of Culture in its North Culture Zone includes the state of Uttarakhand but excludes Delhi[2] whereas the Geological Survey of India includes Uttar Pradesh and Delhi but excludes Rajasthan and Chandigarh.[3] Other states sometimes included are Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]

Jantar Mantar (Jaipur), Qutb Minar, Red Fort, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal. North India's culture developed as a result of interaction between these Hindu and Muslim religious traditions.[14]

The

Definitions

States under Northern Zonal Council in orange
States of Northern India in its narrower definition

Different authorities and sources define North India differently.

Government of India definitions

The

States Reorganisation Act to foster interstate co-operation under the Ministry of Home Affairs, which included the states of Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab and Rajasthan.[1][13]

The Ministry of Culture established the North Culture Zone in Patiala, Punjab on 23 March 1985. It differs from the North Zonal Council in its inclusion of Uttarakhand and the omission of Delhi.[2]

In contrast, the Geological Survey of India (part of the Ministry of Mines) included Uttar Pradesh and Delhi in its Northern Region, but excluded Rajasthan and Chandigarh, with a regional headquarters in Lucknow.[3]

Wider definition

Indian press definition

The Hindu newspaper puts Bihar, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh related articles on its North pages.[4] Articles in the Indian press have included the states of Bihar,[5] Gujarat,[8][7] Jharkhand,[11] Madhya Pradesh,[6] and West Bengal[9][10] in North India as well.

Latitude-based definition

The

North East Indian states. However that definition would also include major parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and West Bengal and minor regions of Chhattisgarh and Gujarat
.

Anecdotal usage

In Maharashtra, the term "North Indian" is sometimes used to describe migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, often using the term bhaiya (which literally means 'elder brother') along with it in a derogatory sense.[17][18] However within Uttar Pradesh (literally meaning "North Province" in Hindustani) itself, "the cultural divide between the east and the west is considerable, with the purabiyas (easterners) often being clubbed with Biharis in the perception of the westerners."[19][20] The Government of Bihar official site places the state in the eastern part of India.[21] Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are largely considered as being a part of north India, however.[22][18][23]

History

Ancient Era

Manuscript illustration, c. 1650, of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in story-telling fashion c. 400 BC – c. 300 BC[24]

By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or

Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.[25][26][27] The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.[25] After 6500 BC, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.[28] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[29][28] the first urban culture in South Asia,[30] which flourished during 2500–1900 BC north-western Indian subcontinent.[31] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[30]

Vedic Era

Between 2000 BC and 1500 BC, several waves of Indo-Aryan migrations from Central Asia occurred and these migrants settled in the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The

Dalits or outcasts).[35] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[34]

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the

In North India, by the 4th and 5th centuries, the

Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[47]

Medieval Era

The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 AD, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[49] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[50] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[50] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.[49] During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.[51] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[51]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[52] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.[52] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[53] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[53] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[54] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[54]

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using

Sultanate of Delhi in 1206.[55] The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.[56][57] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[58][59] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[60]

Early modern era

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,

Mughals or Moguls by European historians owing to the dynasty's Mongol origins. They did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[63][64] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[65] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[66] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[65] The State's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[67] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[68] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[66] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[66] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[69] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[70] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[70] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[71]

A distant view of the Taj Mahal from the Agra Fort
A two mohur Company gold coin, issued in 1835, the obverse inscribed "William IV, King"

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English

British Parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.[78]

In 1833, the three presidencies of

Madras were unified into a unitary state, headed by the Governor-General of India and the creation of the Government of India
.

Modern India

Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of

Empress of India in 1877. In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.[87][88][89][90]

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[91] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,[92] and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.[93] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[94] The railway network provided critical famine relief,[95] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[95] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[94]

Political Divisions of the Indian Empire in 1909
Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a light moment with Mahatma Gandhi, Mumbai, 6 July 1946

After World War I, in which approximately

nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.[97] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.[98] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.[99]

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.

Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[106] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.[107] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China[108] and with Pakistan.[108] India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.[109]

Geography

Thar desert located in North Indian state of Rajasthan

North India lies mainly on continental India, north of peninsular India.[

Vindhya
mountains are, in some interpretations, taken to be the southern boundary of North India.

The predominant geographical features of North India are:

  • the Indo-Gangetic plain, which spans the states and union territories of Chandigarh, Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Jharkhand.
  • the Himalayas and sub-Himalayan belt, which lie in the states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal;
  • the Thar desert, which lies mainly in the state of Rajasthan.

The states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Jammu and Kashmir also have a large forest coverage.[110]

General climate

(Cwb) Subtropical highland, dry wint

North India lies mainly in the north

temperate zone of the Earth.[112]
Though cool or cold winters, hot summers and moderate monsoons are the general pattern. North India is one of the most climatically diverse regions on Earth. During summer, the temperature often rises above 35 °C across much of the Indo-Gangetic plain, reaching as high as 50 °C in the Thar desert, Rajasthan and up to 49 in Delhi. During winter, the lowest temperature on the plains dips to below 5 °C, and below the freezing point in some states. Heavy to moderate snowfall occurs in Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, J&K and Uttarakhand. Much of North India is notorious for heavy fog during winters.

Extreme temperatures among inhabited regions have ranged from −45 °C (−49 °F) in Dras, Ladakh[113] to 50.6 °C (123 °F) in Alwar, Rajasthan. Dras is claimed to be the second-coldest inhabited place on the planet (after Siberia), with a recorded low of −60 °C.[114][115][116]

Precipitation

The region receives heavy rain in plains and light snow on Himalayas precipitation through two primary weather patterns: the Indian

Western Disturbances. The Monsoon carries moisture northwards from the Indian Ocean, occurs in late summer and is important to the Kharif or autumn harvest.[117][118] Western Disturbances, on the other hand, are an extratropical weather phenomenon that carry moisture eastwards from the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.[119][120][121][122] They primarily occur during the winter season and are critically important for the Rabi or spring harvest, which includes the main staple over much of North India, wheat.[120]
The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand receive some snowfall in winter months.

Traditional seasons

Northern Indian tradition recognises six distinct seasons in the region: summer (grishma or garmi(jyesth- ashadh), May–June), rainy (varsha (shravan-bhadra), July–August), cool (sharad (ashivan-kartik), September–October, sometimes thought of as 'early autumn'), autumn (hemant(margh-paush), November–December, also called patjhar, lit. leaf-fall), winter (shishir or sardi(magh-phagun),January–February) and spring (vasant(chaitra-baishakh), March–April). The literature, poetry and folklore of the region uses references to these six seasons quite extensively and has done so since ancient times when Sanskrit was prevalent.[123][124][125] In the mountainous areas, sometimes the winter is further divided into "big winter" (e.g. Kashmiri chillai kalaan) and "little winter" (chillai khurd).[126]

Demographics

The people of North India mostly belong to the

Kolis, Yadavs, Khatris and Kambojs.[127][128][129] Other minority ethno-linguistic communities such as Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic
exist throughout the region.

Religion

Hinduism is the dominant religion in North India. Other religions practiced by various ethnic communities include Islam, Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Baháʼí, Christianity, and Buddhism. Hindus constitutes more than 80 percent of the North India's population. National capital of India (New Delhi) is overwhelming Hindu-majority with Hindus constituting nearly 90% of the capital city's population. The states of Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh are overwhelmingly Hindu-majority. Uttar Pradesh is also majority Hindu, but it boasts a large Muslim minority as well. The union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh have a slight Muslim plurality. The state of Punjab has a Sikh majority of 57% and is the birthplace of Sikh religion.

Languages

Distribution of Indo-Aryan languages.

Linguistically, North India is dominated by

Bhojpuri, Garhwali and Kumaoni
.

Several

Austro-Asiatic languages like Korwa/Kodaku is also spoken in some parts of this region.[130][131]

Culture

North Indian Hindu bride in Lehenga

The composite culture of North India is known as Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, a result of the amicable interaction of Hindus and Muslims there.[14]

Dance

Dance of North India too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known

National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama such as Kathak.[132]

Clothing

Each state of North India has its own regional forms of clothing:

  1. Uttar Pradesh: Chikan Suit, Salwar kameez , Kurta dhoti, Sari .
  2. Jammu: Kurta/Dogri suthan and kurta/churidar pajama and kurta.
  3. Phiran and poots
    .
  4. Himachal Pradesh: Shalwar kameez, Kurta, Churidar, Dhoti, Himachali cap and angarkha.
  5. Punjabi Ghagra
  6. Uttarakhand: Rangwali Phichora

Flora and fauna

Chinkara in Madhya Pradesh, India
Goat at Great Himalayan national Park in Himachal Pradesh

North Indian vegetation is predominantly Tropical evergreen and Montane . Of the evergreen trees

dwarf willows. Reflecting the diverse climatic zones and terrain contained in the region, the floral variety is extensive and ranges from Alpine to Cloud forests, coniferous to evergreen, and thick tropical rainforests to cool temperate woods.[134][140]

There are around 500 varieties of mammals, 2000 species of birds, 30,000 types of insects and a wide variety of fish, amphibians and reptiles in the region. Animal species in North India include

.

Reptiles are represented by a large number of

silkworms and lac insects. The strikingly coloured bir bahuti is also found in this region.[142]

The region has a wide variety of birds, including

Wildlife parks and reserves

Important national parks and tiger reserves of North India include:

Jim Corbett National Park
Sunrise in Kishtwar National Park, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Corbett National Park: It was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park[145]
along the banks of the Ramganga River. It is India's first National Park, and was designated a Project Tiger Reserve in 1973. Situated in Nainital district of Uttarakhand, the park acts as a protected area for the critically endangered Bengal tiger of India. Cradled in the foothills of the Himalayas, it comprises a total area of 500 km2 out of which 350 km2 is core reserve. This park is known not only for its rich and varied wildlife but also for its scenic beauty.

Nanda Devi National Park and Valley of Flowers National Park: Located in West Himalaya, in the state of Uttarakhand, these two national parks constitute a biosphere reserve that is in the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2004. The Valley of Flowers is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and the variety of flora, this richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals.

Dachigam National Park: Dachigam is a higher altitude national reserve in the state of Jammu and Kashmir that ranges from 5,500 to 14,000 feet above sea level. It is home to the hangul (a red deer species, also called the Kashmir stag).

Great Himalayan National Park: This park is located in Himachal Pradesh and ranges in altitude from 5,000 to 17,500 feet. Wildlife resident here includes the snow leopard, the Himalayan brown bear and the musk deer.

Desert National Park: Located in Rajasthan, this national reserve features extensive sand dunes and dry salt lakes. Wildlife unique to the region includes the desert fox and the great Indian bustard.

Kanha National Park: The sal and bamboo forests, grassy meadows and ravines of Kanha were the setting for Rudyard Kipling's collection of stories, "The Jungle Book
". The Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh came into being in 1955 and forms the core of the Kanha Tiger Reserve, created in 1974 under Project Tiger.

Ganges and Indus river dolphin
.

Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary
: It is one of the finest bird parks in the world, it is a reserve that offers protection to faunal species as well. Nesting indigenous water birds as well as migratory water birds and waterside birds, this sanctuary is also inhabited by sambar, chital, nilgai and boar.

Lakhimpur Kheri District of Uttar Pradesh, is best known for the barasingha or swamp deer. The grasslands and woodlands of this park, consist mainly of sal forests. The barasingha is found in the southwest and southeast regions of the park. Among the big cats, tigers abound at Dudhwa. There are also a few leopards. The other animals found in large numbers, are the Indian rhinoceros, elephant, jungle cats, leopard cats, fishing cats, jackals, civets, sloth bears, sambar, otters, crocodiles and chital
.

Ranthambhore National Park: It spans an area of 400 km2 with an estimated head count of thirty two tigers is perhaps India's finest example of Project Tiger, a conservation effort started by the government in an attempt to save the dwindling number of tigers in India. Situated near the small town of Sawai Madhopur
it boasts of variety of plant and animal species of North India.

Shivalik Hills
of eastern Haryana state. Primarily known for birds, it also contains a small number of tigers and panthers.

Places of interest

Akshardham
Temple, Delhi

Nature

The Indian

.

Pilgrimage

North India encompasses several of the holiest pilgrimage centres of Hinduism (

Golden Temple, are all in this region.[146][147]

Historical

The Taj Mahal at Agra
Amer Fort in Rajasthan

North India includes some highly regarded historical, architectural and archaeological treasures of India. The

Bhimbetka is an archaeological site of the Paleolithic
era, exhibiting the earliest traces of human life on the Indian subcontinent.

Universities

North India has several universities, including

The

plans for revival
of this ancient university, including an effort by a multinational consortium led by Singapore, China, India and Japan.

Economy

The economy of North India is predominantly agrarian, but is changing fast with rapid economic growth that has ranged above 8% annually. Several parts of North India have prospered as a consequence of the Green Revolution, including Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, and have experienced both economic and social development.[149][150][151] The eastern areas of East Uttar Pradesh, however, have lagged[152][153] and the resulting disparity has contributed to a demand for separate statehood in West Uttar Pradesh (the Harit Pradesh movement).[154][155]

In 2004, the state with the highest GDP per capita in North India was Punjab followed by Haryana.[156] Chandigarh has the highest per-capita State Domestic Product (SDP) of any Indian union territory.[157] The National Capital Region of Delhi has emerged as an economic power house with rapid industrial growth along with adjoining areas of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan.

According to a 2009–10 report, a large number of unskilled and skilled workers have moved to

southern India and other nations because of the unavailability of jobs locally.[158] The technology boom that occurred in the past three decades in southern India has helped many Indians from the northern region to find jobs and live prosperous lives in southern cities. An analysis by Multidimensional Poverty Index creators reveals that acute poverty prevails in eight Indian states including the northern states of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.[159]

Cuisine

Popular dishes

The best-known[160] North-Indian food items are:

See also

Notes

  1. ^ States sometimes considered to be part of North India[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]

References

  1. ^ a b c "Genesis | ISCS". interstatecouncil.gov.in. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
  2. ^ a b c "North Zone Cultural Centre". culturenorthindia.com. Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  3. ^ a b c "Northern Region – Geological Survey of India". Geological Survey of India, MOI, Government of India. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  4. ^ a b c "The Hindu (NOIDA Edition)". Dropbox. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
  5. ^ a b c "Marriages last the longest in north India, Maharashtra; least in northeast". The Times of India. 18 January 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  6. ^ a b c "Can North India overtake 'arrogant' South in growth?". Firstpost. 30 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  7. ^ a b c "North Indians in Coimbatore". The Hindu. 27 July 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  8. ^ a b c "Hot spell continues in North". The Hindu. 22 May 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  9. ^ a b c "Earthquake jolts North India". Bhaskar. 12 May 2015. Archived from the original on 10 August 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  10. ^ a b c The Hindu (26 January 2016). "-Intense cold in North eight die in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal". The Hindu. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  11. ^ a b c Ali, Amin (25 December 2019). "'Jharkhand is a North Indian state and for BJP to get decimated there is a statement in itself'". The Times of India Blog. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  12. . The central feature of North India is the gigantic Indo-Gangetic plain, together with all of the sacred rivers that flow into it.
  13. ^ a b "The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 (Act No.37 of 1956)" (PDF). interstatecouncil.nic.in. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  14. ^ a b Dhulipala, Venkat (2000). The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis. University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 27. The composite culture of northern India , known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.
  15. ^ a b c "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report (July 2012 to June 2013)" (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
  16. ^ Ram Nath Dubey, "Economic Geography of India", Kitab Mahal, 1961. ... The Tropic of Cancer divides India roughly into two equal parts: the Warm Temperate and Tropical ...
  17. ^ Dutta, Prabhash K. "Who is a Bhaiya?". India Today. These 'bhaiyas' were identified with the migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar who were working in Maharashtra.
  18. ^ a b "Thackerays are 'infiltrators' in Maharashtra from Bihar: Lalu Prasad". Deccan Herald. 9 September 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2023. Lalu said the Thackerays have always been indulging in a campaign against North Indians, mostly Biharis.
  19. ^ "Unorganised Workers of Delhi and the Seven Day Strike of 1988". Indrani Mazumdar, Archives of Indian Labour. Archived from the original on 1 April 2004. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
  20. . ... Maharashtra, in North India, has kala masala in many versions ...
  21. ^ "Government of Bihar". Retrieved 15 August 2023.
  22. . The north Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have the highest percentages of rural populations, with 18.6 and 11.1 percent of people living in villages, respecively, as per the 2011 census. These states are also the largest migrant-sending states. Substantial flows of labour migrants relocate from Uttar Pradesh to Maharashtra, Delhi, West Bengal, Haryana, Gujarat, and other states across northern and central India.
  23. ^ Magazine, Aancha (7 March 2023). "Concern over north Indian workers in Tamil Nadu: What the numbers say about India's migrants". The Indian Express. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
  24. . The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.
  25. ^ a b Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10, "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."
  26. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 1, "Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present."
  27. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 23, "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago."
  28. ^ a b Coningham & Young 2015, pp. 104–105.
  29. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 21–23.
  30. ^ a b Singh 2009, p. 181.
  31. ^ Possehl 2003, p. 2.
  32. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 186–187.
  33. ^ Witzel 2003, pp. 68–69.
  34. ^ a b c Singh 2009, p. 255.
  35. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 41–43.
  36. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 260–265.
  37. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 53–54.
  38. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 312–313.
  39. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 54–56.
  40. ^ Stein 1998, p. 21.
  41. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 67–68.
  42. ^ Singh 2009, p. 300.
  43. ^ Singh 2009, p. 319.
  44. ^ Singh 2009, p. 367.
  45. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 63.
  46. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 89–91.
  47. ^ a b c Singh 2009, p. 545.
  48. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 98–99.
  49. ^ a b Stein 1998, p. 132.
  50. ^ a b Stein 1998, pp. 119–120.
  51. ^ a b Stein 1998, pp. 121–122.
  52. ^ a b Stein 1998, p. 123.
  53. ^ a b Stein 1998, p. 124.
  54. ^ a b Stein 1998, pp. 127–128.
  55. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 68.
  56. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47.
  57. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.
  58. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 67.
  59. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–51.
  60. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 53.
  61. ^ Robb 2001, p. 80.
  62. ^ Stein 1998, p. 164.
  63. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 115.
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