Nuclear energy policy by country
National nuclear energy policy is a national
Following the March 2011
As of 2012, countries such as
List
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (August 2013) |
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, it is unclear if the section is about all nuclear reactors (including research) or only nuclear power reactors for electricity generation. (May 2018) |
Country | Operating Reactors | Constructing Reactors | Debates to Construct Reactors | Planning to Phase Out Existing Reactors | Nuclear Restriction Policy |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albania
|
No | No | No | — | |
Algeria
|
Research | No | No | ||
Argentina
|
Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
Armenia
|
Yes | No | Yes | ||
Australia
|
Research[15] | No | Yes[16] | — | Nuclear power is illegal (see also nuclear energy in Australia )
|
Austria
|
No | No | No | — | Nuclear reactions are forbidden by law since 1978, prolonged in 1997 |
Bangladesh
|
No | Yes | Yes | ||
Belarus
|
Yes | No | Yes | — | |
Belgium
|
Yes | No | No | Yes (2035) | Phase-out by 2035[12] |
Brazil
|
Yes | Yes | No | ||
Bulgaria
|
Yes | No | Yes | No | |
Burma
|
No | No | — | ||
Canada
|
Yes | No | Yes | No | |
Chile
|
No | No | No | — | |
China | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
Croatia
|
No (shared plant in Slovenia) | No | No | ||
Colombia | Research[17] | No | No | — | |
Czech Republic | Yes | No | Yes | No | |
Denmark
|
No | No | No | — | 1985 law prohibits production |
Egypt
|
Research | No | Yes | ||
Finland | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
France
|
Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Share of 50% nuclear in power sector by 2035 (Loi énergie-climat, 2019 - pushed back from 2025 in Energy Transition for Green Growth Act (LTECV) from 2015) |
Ghana
|
Research | No | No | — | |
Germany
|
Research | No | No | Yes (phase out completed) | Original phase-out planned for 2022, but delayed to 15 April 2023[18] |
Greece
|
No | No | No | — | |
Hong Kong | No (shared plant in China) | No | No | — | |
Hungary
|
Yes | Yes | No | No | |
India | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
Ireland
|
No | No | No | — | |
Israel
|
No | No | No | — | |
Iran | Yes | No | Yes | No | |
Italy
|
Research | No | No | — | Phase out in late 1980s, nuclear power is illegal since 2011 (see also nuclear power in Italy and 2011 Italian referendums) |
Japan | Yes | No | Yes | No | |
Jordan
|
No | Research | Yes | — | |
Kazakhstan
|
No | No | Yes | ||
Kenya
|
No | Research | No | No | |
Libya
|
No | No | |||
Lithuania
|
No | No | Yes | — | |
Luxembourg
|
No | No | No | — | |
Malta
|
No | No | No | — | |
Mexico | Yes | No | No | No | |
Morocco
|
No | Research | Yes | No | |
Netherlands
|
Yes | No | Yes | No | |
Nigeria
|
Research | No | No | No | |
New Zealand
|
No | No | No | — | |
North Korea | No | No | No | — | |
Norway
|
No | No | No | — | |
Pakistan
|
Yes | Yes | No | No | |
Philippines | No | No | Yes | ||
Portugal
|
No | No | No | No | Research reactor decommissioned in 2019[citation needed] |
Poland
|
Research | Planning[19] | Yes | No | |
Romania
|
Yes | No | Yes | ||
Russia | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
Serbia | No | No | Yes | — | Law from 10 March 1995 restricting nuclear power[citation needed] |
Slovakia
|
Yes | Yes | No | No | |
Slovenia | Yes | No | |||
South Africa
|
Yes | No | Yes | ||
South Korea | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
Spain
|
Yes | No | No | Yes | |
Sri Lanka
|
No | No | Yes | ||
Sweden
|
Yes | No | Yes | No | Former phase-out plans scrapped. Limit of 10 total reactors also scrapped.[20] |
Switzerland
|
Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes [21] |
Syria
|
No | No | — | ||
Taiwan
|
Yes | No | No | Yes | |
Thailand | No | No | Yes | — | |
Tunisia
|
No | No | No | — | |
Turkey
|
No | Yes | No | No | |
Ukraine | Yes | Yes[22][23] | Yes | No | |
United Arab Emirates | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
United Kingdom | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | |
United States | Yes[24] | Yes[25] | Yes[25] | No | Yes in 12 states[26][clarification needed] |
Uruguay
|
No | No | — | Yes[27][clarification needed] | |
Venezuela
|
No | No | No | — | |
Vietnam
|
No | No | Yes |
Africa
Algeria
Egypt
In November 2015 and March 2017 Egypt signed preliminary agreements with Russian nuclear company
Ghana
Ghana has research reactors, but no power plants.
Kenya
Kenya aims to build a 1,000 MWe nuclear power plant by 2030.[30]
Libya
Morocco
Nigeria
South Africa
South Africa is the only country in Africa with a commercial nuclear power plant and it currently has an expansion policy.
Asia
Bangladesh
Bangladesh considered building a nuclear power plant for the first time in 1961. Since then, several feasibility studies have been carried out, affirming the feasibility of the project. In 1963 the Rooppur site was selected. More recently, in 2001 Bangladesh adopted a national Nuclear Power Action Plan.[31] On 24 June 2007, Bangladesh's government announced it will build a nuclear power plant to meet electricity shortages.[32] The first nuclear power plant with a generation capacity between 700 and 1,000 MW will be installed by 2015 at Rooppur in Pabna district.[33]
China
As of March 2014, China has 20 operating reactors, and 28 reactors under construction. Additional reactors are planned, providing 58 GWe of capacity by 2020.[34]
Gulf states
Six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Oman) have announced that the Council is commissioning a study on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. In February 2007 they agreed with the IAEA to cooperate on a feasibility study for a regional nuclear power and desalination program.[31]
The United Arab Emirates adopted a national policy on nuclear energy in July 2008 and a national nuclear energy law on 4 October 2009. According to the law and the policy document, the Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation was established.[35][36] Memorandums of understanding on cooperation in peaceful uses of nuclear energy are signed with France, the United States and the United Kingdom.
On 29 March 2008, Bahrain signed a memorandum of understanding on nuclear energy with the United States.[42]
In 2010 the Kuwait National Nuclear Energy Committee and the Russian company Rosatom signed a memorandum of understanding on the use of nuclear energy.[43]
India
India has 20 reactors operating and 6 reactors under construction.[44][45]
India has encountered effective local
Indonesia
In the mid-1990s, Indonesia conducted a feasibility study into constructing 12 nuclear power plants. The plan was postponed due to criticism from environmentalists and the Asian regional economic crisis in 1997.[47][48] In 2006, Indonesian Government announced a plan to build its first major nuclear power plant on Muria peninsula, Jepara district, Central Java by 2015. However, this decision is not final yet.[49] This plan is heavily criticized by environmental organisations.[50]
In June 2007 was announced that in
Iran
In the mid-1970s, Iran started construction of two PWR units at [Bushehr], but the project was suspended in 1979. In 1994, Russia agreed to complete unit 1 of Bushehr nuclear power plant and it was expected to be completed late in 2007. Also second reactor is planned at Bushehr. It also announced that a new nuclear power plant is to be built at Darkhovin in Khūzestān Province, where two plants were about to be constructed in the 1970s.[31] Currently, Iran has reported that a power plant at Bushehr is operational.[52]
Iran plans to build at least 19 more reactors with cumulative capacity of 20,000 MW by 2025 out of which at least six reactors are expected to be operational by 2020[53][54]
Israel
Israel has no nuclear power plants. However, in January 2007,
Japan
Nuclear energy was a national strategic priority in Japan, but there has been concern about the ability of Japan's nuclear plants to withstand seismic activity. The Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant was completely shut down for 21 months following an earthquake in 2007.
Following
On 6 May 2011, Prime Minister Naoto Kan ordered the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant be shut down as an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or higher is likely to hit the area within the next 30 years.[62][63][64] Kan wanted to avoid a possible repeat of the Fukushima disaster.[65] On 9 May 2011, Chubu Electric decided to comply with the government request. Kan later called for a new energy policy with less reliance on nuclear power.[66]
Problems in stabilizing the Fukushima I nuclear plant have hardened attitudes to
Jordan
Jordan plans to start building its first nuclear power plant by 2013 at the site about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Aqaba.[76] It will be used for electricity generation and desalination.[78] The studies are carried out by Tractebel Engineering.[76]
Jordan has also granted Areva exclusive mining rights for uranium in central Jordan.[76]
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan shut down its only NPP in 1999. In 2003, the Minister of Energy and Mines announced plans for the construction of a new NPP within the next 15 years. The two–three unit NPP is to be established on the shores of Lake Balkhash in the Karaganda region of central Kazakhstan.[79]
North Korea
South Korea
Malaysia
Although Malaysia has established Nuclear Agency and been actively involved in the periodic review of the nuclear option, currently there is no nuclear power generation plant, and plans for a future nuclear plant are exploring the feasibility of such a plant.[81][82]
Myanmar
On 15 May 2007, Myanmar and Russia signed an agreement to construct a nuclear research center in Myanmar. The center will comprise a 10 MWt light water reactor working on 20%-enriched U-235, an activation analysis laboratory, a medical isotope production laboratory, silicon doping system, nuclear waste treatment and burial facilities.[83] Groups such as Greenpeace are concerned that such technology may pose possible security threats.[84]
Pakistan
Pakistan operates five reactors generating 1430 MW, is building three new (3x1150). The current total nuclear generating capacity is 1430 MWe. Pakistan plans on constructing 32 reactors by 2050.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia hopes to build 16 reactors but has none. Saudi Arabia has commissioned Westinghouse Electric Company to build the AP1000 reactors.
Syria
Syria abandoned its plans to build a VVER-440 reactor after the Chernobyl accident.[31] The plans of nuclear program were revived at the beginning of the 2000s when Syria negotiated with Russia to build a nuclear facility that would include a nuclear power plant and a seawater atomic desalination plant.[85]
Taiwan
In Taiwan nuclear energy policy is a contentious issue. On World Environment Day in June 2011, environmental groups protested against the nation's three operating nuclear power plants and the construction of a fourth plant.[86]
The government
Thailand
According to the energy minister of Thailand, the state owned Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand will build its first two nuclear power plants by 2021. This decision was criticized by Greenpeace, which suggested to focus on alternative power supplies from hydropower and smaller biofuel plants before risking nuclear.[89][90]
Vietnam
In the 1980s Vietnam undertook two preliminary nuclear power studies, which concluded that there was a need to introduce nuclear energy in order to meet the expected growth in electricity demand. A national energy plan stated that the nuclear power program was to be commenced by 2010. In February 2006, the government announced the first nuclear power plant would be commissioned by 2017.[31] In June 2010, Vietnam announced that it plans to build fourteen reactors at eight locations by 2030, providing 10% of the nation's electricity.[91] In October 2010, it signed an agreement with Russia for the construction of the country's first nuclear power plant, Ninh Thuan 1, due to begin in 2014.[92]
However, in November 2016 Vietnam decided to abandon nuclear power plans as they were "not economically viable because of other cheaper sources of power."[93]
Yemen
Yemen has called for establishing The Arab Atomic Energy Agency for nuclear researches and using them for peaceful means, especially generating electricity.[94]
Europe
Albania
Albania presently has no nuclear power plants, but in 2007 the government discussed constructing a nuclear power plant at
Armenia
The Armenian Nuclear Power Plant is the only nuclear power plant in the South Caucasus region. It is located 36 kilometers west of Armenia's capital, Yerevan. The plant was activated on 22 December 1976.
Belgium
The
Bulgaria
The
Czech Republic
The
Finland
This section needs to be updated.(June 2023) |
On 21 April 2010, the
The nuclear power companies are responsible for storage and disposal of
According to a TNS Gallup survey conducted in January 2010, 48% of Finns had a positive view of nuclear power, and 17% were negative.[108]
France
After the oil crisis of the early 1970s, the French government decided in 1974 to move towards self-sufficiency in electricity production, primarily through the construction of nuclear power stations. France today[when?] produces around 78.1% of its electricity through nuclear power.[109] Because France produces an overall electricity surplus, it exports nuclear-produced energy. The Board of
France established a law in 2005 requiring that nuclear power be central to energy policy and security. Under this law, France would build a
EDF reprocesses approximately 850 of the 1,200 tons of used fuel each year. The reprocessed
Following the 2011
Many problems brought
Germany
Nuclear power in Germany accounted for 23% of national electricity consumption,
On 30 May 2011, Germany formally announced plans to abandon nuclear energy completely within 11 years. The plan includes the immediate permanent closure of six nuclear power plants that had been temporarily shut down for testing in March 2011, and two more that have been offline a few years with technical problems. The remaining nine plants will be shut down between now and 2022. The announcement was first made by
Chancellor Angela Merkel said the phase-out of plants, previously scheduled to go offline as late as 2036, would give Germany a competitive advantage in the renewable energy era, stating, "As the first big industrialized nation, we can achieve such a transformation toward efficient and renewable energies, with all the opportunities that brings for exports, developing new technologies and jobs". Merkel also pointed to Japan's "helplessness" – despite being an industrialized, technologically advanced nation – in the face of its nuclear disaster.[121] Some German manufacturers and energy companies have criticized the plans, warning that Germany could face blackouts.[122] The Energiewende (Energy U-turn) policies have suffered from inadequate investment in power infrastructure to bring power to markets. The reduced dependence on nuclear power has resulted in higher consumption of fossil fuels and therefore of greenhouse gas production.
Italy
After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster Italy held a referendum, which supported shutting down Italy's four nuclear power plants. The construction of new reactors was halted and the last operating reactor was closed in 1990.[123] In 1987, a moratorium on the construction of new nuclear plants was passed. Originally in effect until 1993, it had been extended until 2009.[124] In 2004, a new energy law allowed joint ventures with foreign companies in relation to nuclear power plants and importing electricity from them.[125] Following Silvio Berlusconi's victory in the 2008 election, Italy's industry minister announced that the government scheduled the construction to start the first new Italian nuclear-powered plant by 2013.[126] On 24 February 2009, an agreement between France and Italy was signed according to which a study about the feasibility of building 4 new nuclear power plants in Italy to be conducted.[127] On 9 July 2009 the Italian parliament passed a law on the establishment of a nuclear safety agency to be established by July 2010, and giving the government a task to select sites for new nuclear power plants.[125][128] According to the 2010 Eurobarometer report only 20% of Italians support increase of the nuclear energy in the country's energy mix while 62% think that the share should be either maintained or reduced.[125]
There was a
Romania
Romania's 1,400 MW Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant produces around 18% of the nation's electrical power. It is based on Canadian technology and uses heavy water produced at Drobeta-Turnu Severin as its neutron moderator and water from the Danube for cooling. Two reactors are fully operational and another three are partially finished. When fully functional the plant will produce around 40% of Romania's total electricity needs.
Currently,
There are plans to construct a second nuclear power plant in Transylvania after 2020.[130]
Russia
Russia operates 31 reactors, is building 3, and has plans for another 27.[131] Russia has also begun building floating nuclear power plants. The £100 million ($204.9 million, 2 billion Rubles) vessel Akademik Lomonosov was completed in 2018, as the first of seven plants that Moscow says will bring vital energy to remote Russian regions. While producing only a small fraction of the power of a standard Russian land-based plant, it can supply power to a city of 200,000, or function as a desalination plant. The Rosatom, the state-owned nuclear energy company said that at least 12 countries were also interested in buying floating nuclear plants.[132]
Serbia
Serbia presently doesn't have any nuclear power plants. Previously, Vinča Nuclear Institute operated two research reactors; RA and RB. The research reactors were supplied by the USSR. The larger of the two reactors was rated at 6.5 MW and used Soviet-supplied 80% enriched uranium fuel.
On 15 October 1958, there was a criticality accident at one of the research reactors. Six workers received large doses of radiation; one died shortly afterwards. The other five received the first ever bone marrow transplants in Europe.
The nuclear research programme ended in 1968, while the reactors were switched off in 1984.
After the 1986 Chernobyl disaster a nationwide campaign against usage of nuclear energy delivered a moratorium in a form of Law in 1989, which not only prohibited the construction of nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel fabrication and reprocessing facilities for used nuclear fuel but also criminalized any activity related to the aforementioned making it a criminal offense punishable by 5 years of prison.
After the break up of the former Yugoslavia a new law was adopted on 10 March 1995, which confirmed the previous moratorium, although it removed the controversial article related to the nuclear criminal offense.
Even though majority of people and politicians still support moratorium on usage of nuclear energy, past couple of years are marked with an increasing public campaign pointed towards repeal of the 1995 Law, or, at least, its limitation to 10 years, after which it would be possible to build nuclear reactors in Serbia.
Spain
In 1964, Spain began construction on its first of three nuclear reactors and completed construction in 1968.
Currently,[
Sweden
Switzerland
Switzerland has five nuclear reactors, and around 40% of its electricity is generated by nuclear power. The country has had several
Ukraine
Ukraine operates 15 reactors, which supply 47.5% of Ukraine's electricity production of 195 billion kWh (2007). Ukraine's power sector is the twelfth-largest in the world in terms of installed capacity, with 54 gigawatts (GW).[138] In 2006, the government planned to build 11 new reactors by the year 2030, in effect, almost doubling the current amount of nuclear power capacity.[139]
United Kingdom
The first full-scale nuclear reactor in Europe opened in
North America
Canada
Canada operates 18 reactors accounting for about 15% of electrical generation, all in the province of Ontario except for one in New Brunswick. Increasing demands for electricity and environmental considerations have led Ontario to announce that it will maintain existing nuclear capacity by replacing older reactors with new ones.[142] Canada has never had any serious accidents related to nuclear power, CANDU reactors are a particularly safe design.[143] Canada is planning new reactors.[144]
Mexico
Mexico has one nuclear power plant, the
After a period of inactivity, Mexico decided in 2007 to resume the use of Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Station. The two reactors were upgraded in production to 817MW each (from 683MW),[147] accounting 4.6% of the electricity production. On 14 May 2010 Energy Secretary Georgina Kessel announced the intention of Mexico to include full development of nuclear energy as a means of diversifying its energy portfolio and provide an alternative to the use of fossil fuels.[148]
In November 2011, Mexico abandoned plans to build as many as 10 new nuclear reactors in order to focus instead on natural gas-fired electricity plants after boosting discoveries of the fuel.[10]
United States
In 2007, there were 104 (69 pressurized water reactors, 35 boiling water reactors) commercial nuclear generating units licensed to operate in the United States, producing approximately 20% of the country's electrical energy needs. In absolute terms, the United States is the world's largest supplier of commercial nuclear power. However, the development of nuclear power in the United States has been stymied ever since the
As of October 2011, plans for about 30 new reactors in the United States have been "whittled down to just four, despite the promise of large subsidies and President Barack Obama's support of nuclear power, which he reaffirmed after Fukushima".
In 2008, the Energy Information Administration projected almost 17 gigawatts of new nuclear power reactors by 2030, but in its 2011 projections, it "scaled back the 2030 projection to just five".[155] A survey conducted in April 2011 found that 64 percent of Americans opposed the construction of new nuclear reactors.[66] A survey sponsored by the Nuclear Energy Institute, conducted in September 2011, found that "62 percent of respondents said they favor the use of nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide electricity in the United States, with 35 percent opposed".[156]
South America
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Uruguay
Venezuela
Oceania
Australia
Australia has no nuclear power plants. However, Australia has up to 40% of the world's uranium deposits and is the world's second largest producer of uranium after Canada.[79] At the same time Australia's extensive, low-cost coal and natural gas reserves have historically been used as strong arguments for avoiding nuclear power.
In 2005, the Australian government threatened to use its
John Howard went to the 2007 Australian federal election with a pro-nuclear power platform but his government was defeated by Labor, which opposes nuclear power for Australia.[157][158]
New Zealand
New Zealand has no nuclear power plants. It enacted the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987 which prohibits the stationing of nuclear weapons on the territory of New Zealand and the entry into New Zealand waters of nuclear armed or propelled ships. This Act of Parliament, however, does not prevent the construction of nuclear power plants. A 2008 survey shows that relatively few New Zealanders favour nuclear power as the best energy source.[159] However a 2005 survey of business leaders showed that nearly two-thirds supported investigation of nuclear power.[160] A research reactor was operated by the University of Canterbury until 1981. A nuclear reactor provided electricity for McMurdo Station, in the New Zealand Antarctic Territory from 1962-1972. From the mid-1960s until the early 1980s official energy policy was that nuclear energy would be required. The Royal Commission on Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand in its 1978 report said that there was no immediate need for New Zealand to embark upon a nuclear power program, but suggested that early in the 21st Century "a significant nuclear programme should be economically possible."
See also
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Further reading
- Ferguson, Charles D., "Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks", Council on Foreign Relations, 2007