Nuclear power in Germany
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Nuclear power was used in Germany from the 1960s until it was phased out in April 2023.
German nuclear power began with research reactors in the 1950s and 1960s, with the first commercial plant coming online in 1969. By 1990, nuclear power accounted for about a quarter of the electricity produced in the country.
The
Nuclear power accounted for 13.3% of German electricity supply in 2021,[6] supplied by six power plants. Three of these were switched off at the end of 2021, and the other three ceased operations by April 2023.[7][8]
History
Early nuclear research in Germany
Prior to the takeover of
First nuclear power plants
As in many
In the early 1960s, there was a proposal to build a nuclear power station in West Berlin, but the project was dropped in 1962. Another attempt to site a reactor in a major city was made in 1967, when BASF planned to build a nuclear power station on its grounds at Ludwigshafen to supply process steam. The project was withdrawn by BASF.[10]
Attempts at developing a closed fuel-cycle and breeding reactors
A closed nuclear fuel cycle was planned, starting with mining operations in the
In 1959, 15 municipal electric companies established the Association of Experimental Reactor GmbH (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor, AVR) to demonstrate the feasibility and viability of a gas-cooled, graphite-moderated high temperature reactor (
In 1965, before the AVR started operation, a basic design for a commercial demonstration HTGR reactor using thorium was started, the THTR-300. The HTGR, rated at 300 MWe, synchronised with the grid in 1985. Six months later, a fuel pebble became lodged in the reactor core. After repairs, it was restarted and operated in July 1986, reaching full power in September 1986. It operated until September 1988 and was shut down in September 1989.
Early opposition and reactor closures
In the early 1970s, large public demonstrations prevented the construction of a
The
By 1992, a group of German and Swiss firms planned to proceed with the construction of the HTR-500, a design that made considerable use of the THTR-300 technology. But the politically hostile environment in the light of the Chernobyl disaster as well as technical issues with the THTR-300 halted any effort. The technology is now being pursued by the Chinese as the HTR-PM.
First phase-out proposal
During the chancellorship of
On 14 March 2011, in response to the renewed concern about the use of nuclear energy raised by the Fukushima incident in the German public and in light of upcoming elections in three
Phase-out decision
On 30 May 2011, the German government announced a plan to shut down all nuclear reactors by 2022.[21] Prior to the decision, Germany's renewable energy sector already provided 17% of Germany's electricity and employed about 370,000 people.[22] The decision to phase out nuclear power has been called the swiftest change in political course since unification.[23]
Political writer
In September 2011,
Merkel stated that Germany "[does not] only want to renounce nuclear energy by 2022, we also want to reduce our CO2 emissions by 40 percent and double our share of renewable energies, from about 17 percent today to then 35 percent".[22]
Before 2011, Germany was getting just under a quarter of its electricity from nuclear power.[22] After the Fukushima disaster, the following eight German nuclear power reactors were declared permanently shut down on 6 August 2011: Biblis A and B, Brunsbuettel, Isar 1, Kruemmel, Neckarwestheim 1, Philippsburg 1, and Unterweser.[26]
On 5 December 2016, the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) ruled that the nuclear plant operators affected by the accelerated phase-out of nuclear power following the Fukushima disaster are eligible for "adequate" compensation. The court found that the nuclear exit was essentially constitutional but that the utilities are entitled to damages for the "good faith" investments they made in 2010. The utilities can now sue the German government under civil law. E.ON, RWE, and Vattenfall are expected to seek a total of €19 billion under separate suits.[27][28][29] Six cases were registered with courts in Germany as of 7 December 2016[update].[30][31]
As of March 2019, only seven nuclear plants had been left in operation and should be scheduled to be shut down and dismantled.[32] As of early 2022, three plants remain for the final year.
Renewed debate
After
On 5 September 2022, the Federal Government announced that two of the three remaining nuclear power plants (Neckarwestheim and Isar 2) would operate beyond 31 December 2022 until April 2023 (cycle stretch out), while the Emsland Nuclear Power Plant was to be shut down as planned.[42] However, on 10 October 2022, Scholz announced that all three would remain operating until 15 April 2023.[43] Wolfgang Kubicki, deputy leader of the Free Democrats, said in an interview with the Funke Media Group that "Germany has the safest nuclear power plants worldwide and switching them off would be 'a dramatic mistake' with painful economic and ecological consequences." Other members of the Free Democratic Party have called for the nuclear power plants to be at least maintained as a precautionary measure in case they are needed in the future for power generation.[44]
Reactors
Unfinished plantsPlant name |
Unit No. |
Type | Model | Status | Capacity (MW) |
Begin building |
Commercial operation |
Closed |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AVR | 1 | HTGR | PBR Prototype | Shut down | 13 | 1 Aug 1961 | 19 May 1969 | 31 Dec 1988 |
Biblis | 1 | PWR | Siemens-KWU | Shut down/in decommissioning | 1167 | 1 Jan 1970 | 26 Feb 1975 | 6 Aug 2011 |
2 | PWR | KWU | Shut down/in decommissioning | 1240 | 1 Feb 1972 | 31 Jan 1977 | 6 Aug 2011 | |
Brokdorf | 1 | PWR | KWU | Shut down | 1410 | 1 Jan 1976 | 22 Dec 1986 | 31 Dec 2021 |
Brunsbüttel | 1 | BWR | BWR-69 | Shut down | 771 | 15 Apr 1970 | 9 Feb 1977 | 6 Aug 2011 |
Emsland | 1 | PWR | Konvoi (KWU) | Shut down | 1329 | 10 Aug 1982 | 20 Jun 1988 | 15 Apr 2023 |
Grafenrheinfeld |
1 | PWR | KWU | Shut down | 1275 | 1 Jan 1975 | 17 Jun 1982 | 27 Jun 2015 |
Greifswald | 1 | PWR | VVER-440 /V-230 |
Shut down/in decommissioning | 408 | 1 Mar 1970 | 12 Jul 1974 | 14 Feb 1990 |
2 | PWR | VVER-440/V-230 | Shut down/in decommissioning | 408 | 1 Mar 1970 | 16 Apr 1975 | 14 Feb 1990 | |
3 | PWR | VVER-440/V-230 | Shut down/in decommissioning | 408 | 1 Apr 1972 | 1 May 1978 | 28 Feb 1990 | |
4 | PWR | VVER-440/V-230 | Shut down/in decommissioning | 408 | 1 Apr 1972 | 1 Nov 1979 | 22 Jul 1990 | |
5 | PWR | VVER-440/V-213 | Shut down/in decommissioning | 408 | 1 Dec 1976 | 1 Nov 1989 | 24 Nov 1989 | |
6 | PWR | VVER-440/V-213 | Finished; never entered service | 408 | ||||
Grohnde | 1 | PWR | KWU | Shut down | 1360 | 1 Jun 1976 | 1 Feb 1985 | 31 Dec 2021[45] |
Grosswelzheim | 1 | BWR | BWR | Dismantled | 25 | 1 Jan 1965 | 2 Aug 1970 | 20 Apr 1971 |
Gundremmingen | A | BWR | GE , BWR-1 |
Shut down/in decommissioning | 237 | 12 Dec 1962 | 12 Apr 1967 | 13 Jan 1977 |
B | BWR | BWR-72 (KWU) | Shut down | 1284 | 20 Jul 1976 | 19 Jul 1984 | 31 Dec 2017[46] | |
C | BWR | BWR-72 (KWU) | Shut down | 1288 | 20 Jul 1976 | 18 Jan 1985 | 31 Dec 2021[45] | |
Isar | 1 | BWR | BWR-69 | Shut down/in decommissioning | 878 | 1 May 1972 | 21 Mar 1979 | 6 Aug 2011 |
2 | PWR | Konvoi (KWU) | Shut down | 1410 | 15 Sep 1982 | 9 Apr 1988 | 15 Apr 2023 | |
Kahl | 1 | BWR | BWR | Dismantled | 15 | 1 Jul 1958 | 1 Feb 1962 | 25 Nov 1985 |
SNR-300 | 1 | FBR |
Finished; never entered service | 1972 | 1985 | |||
KNK II | 1 | FBR |
Shut down | 17 | 1 Sep 1974 | 3 Mar 1979 | 23 Aug 1991 | |
Krümmel | 1 | BWR | BWR-69 (KWU) | Shut down | 1346 | 5 Apr 1974 | 28 Mar 1984 | 6 Aug 2011 |
Lingen | 1 | BWR | BWR | Shut down | 183 | 1 Oct 1964 | 1 Oct 1968 | 5 Jan 1977 |
Mülheim-Kärlich | 1 | PWR | B & W | Shut down/in decommissioning | 1219 | 15 Jan 1975 | 8 Aug 1987 | 9 Sep 1988 |
MZFR | 1 | PHWR |
PHWR | Shut down | 52 | 1 Dec 1961 | 19 Dec 1966 | 3 May 1984 |
Neckarwestheim | 1 | PWR | KWU | Shut down | 785 | 1 Feb 1972 | 1 Dec 1976 | 6 Aug 2011 |
2 | PWR | Konvoi (KWU) | Shut down | 1310 | 9 Nov 1982 | 15 Apr 1989 | 15 Apr 2023 | |
Niederaichbach | 1 | HWGCR | Pressure tube reactor | Shut down/decommissioned | 100 | 1 Jun 1966 | 1 Jan 1973 | 31 Jul 1974 |
Obrigheim | 1 | PWR | Siemens | Shut down/in decommissioning | 340 | 15 Mar 1965 | 31 Mar 1969 | 11 May 2005 |
Philippsburg | 1 | BWR | BWR-69 | Shut down | 890 | 1 Oct 1970 | 26 Mar 1980 | 6 Aug 2011 |
2 | PWR | KWU | Shut down | 1402 | 7 Jul 1977 | 18 Apr 1985 | 31 Dec 2019[47] | |
Rheinsberg | 1 | PWR | VVER-70 | Shut down/in decommissioning | 62 | 1 Jan 1960 | 11 Oct 1966 | 1 Jun 1990 |
Stade | 1 | PWR | Siemens | Shut down/in decommissioning | 640 | 1 Dec 1967 | 19 May 1972 | 4 Nov 2003 |
Stendal |
1 | PWR | VVER-1000 /V-320 |
Unfinished | 1983 | 1990 | ||
2 | PWR | VVER-1000 /V-320 |
Unfinished | 1983 | 1990 | |||
THTR-300 | 1 | HTGR | PBR | Decommissioned | 296 | 3 May 1971 | 1 Jun 1987 | 29 Sep 1988 |
Unterweser | 1 | PWR | KWU | Shut down/in decommissioning | 1345 | 1 Jul 1972 | 6 Sep 1979 | 6 Aug 2011 |
Würgassen | 1 | BWR | BWR-69 (AEG) | Shut down/in decommissioning | 640 | 26 Jan 1968 | 11 Nov 1975 | 26 Aug 1994 |
Radioactive waste management
Nuclear power plants take years to dismantle, and contaminated sites have to be cleared and declared free of radiation.[32] One estimate puts the cost of dismantling Germany's nuclear reactor sites at €18 billion, not counting the cost of radioactive waste disposal.[48]
No country has permanent storage sites for nuclear energy waste, and spent nuclear fuel is stockpiled in temporary locations.[49] In Germany, heavily contaminated spent fuel rods are stored in Castor containers on several temporary sites around the country.[48]
Germany is preparing the former iron ore mine Schacht Konrad in Salzgitter as a national facility for the permanent disposal of low- to medium-grade radioactive waste materials.[48][32]
Nuclear Waste Disposal Fund
On 19 October 2016, the German cabinet (Bundeskabinett) finalised a deal with nuclear power plant operators E.ON, EnBW, RWE, and Vattenfall over long-term nuclear waste disposal. Under the agreement, the four operators are freed of responsibility for storing radioactive waste; that responsibility is instead transferred to the state. In return, the operators will pay a total of €17.4 billion into a state-administered fund to finance the interim and final storage of nuclear waste. They will also pay an additional "risk surcharge" of €6.2 billion (35.5%) to cover the eventuality that costs exceed current projections and that the interest accrued by the fund is lower than expected. The operators will be responsible for decommissioning and deconstructing their own nuclear power plants, as well as preparing their radioactive waste for final storage.
Critics, including the German Renewable Energy Federation and BUND, claim the total of €23.6 billion would prove insufficient and that future taxpayers will carry the risk.[50]
Transmutation
While the official policy of Germany is to dispose of spent fuel in a
Accidents
Date | Location | Description | Fatalities | Cost (million 2006 US$) |
INES |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1975 | Greifswald, East Germany | A near- core meltdown at Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant : Three out of six cooling water pumps were switched off for a failed test. A fourth pump broke down due to a loss of electric power, and control of the reactor was lost. 10 fuel elements were slightly damaged before recovery. |
0 | ? | 3 |
4 May 1986 | Hamm-Uentrop, Germany | Operator actions to dislodge damaged fuel elements at the thorium high-temperature reactor released radioactivity to 4 km2 surrounding the facility. |
0 | 267 | ? |
17 December 1987 | Hessen , Germany |
The stop valve failed for a moment at Biblis Nuclear Power Plant; contamination of the local area in the reactor building. | 0 | 13 |
Phase-out
Germany decided on a phase-out in 2011. The phase-out was completed in 2023. The country has combined the phase-out with an initiative for renewable energy and wants to increase the efficiency of
As a result of generous subsidies, Germany has installed a large solar and wind generation capacity. At the same time, Germany continues to rely heavily on coal power, with usage increasing to offset the phase-out of nuclear energy.[56]
The German nuclear industry has insisted that its shutdown would cause major damage to the country's industrial base. In 2012, member firms of the Verband der Industriellen Energie- und Kraftwirtschaft (VIK) reported
The cost of replacing Germany's nuclear power generation with renewable energy has been officially estimated by the
Some German manufacturers and energy companies have criticised the phase-out plans, warning that Germany could face blackouts.
In March 2013, the administrative court for the German state of Hesse ruled that a three-month closure imposed by the government on RWE's Biblis A and B reactors as an immediate response to the Fukushima Daiichi accident was illegal.[66] The state ministry of the environment acted illegally in March 2011, when an order was issued for the immediate closure of the Biblis units. RWE complied with the decree by shutting Biblis-A immediately; however, as the plants were in compliance with the relevant safety requirements, the German government had no legal grounds for shutting them. The court ruled that the closure notice was illegal because RWE had not been given sufficient opportunity to respond to the order.
In 2022, Vox commented that "Germany’s decision to restart old coal plants rather than extend the life of its nuclear power facilities reflects a failure of environmental priorities",[67] and NPR wrote, "Facing an energy crisis, Germans stock up on candles."[68] In April 2023, several critics of nuclear power plant shutdowns argued that the switching off of nuclear power plants deprives Germany of a source of low- emission power and forces the country to continue using fossil fuels that contribute to climate change.[44][69]
See also
- Energy policy of the European Union
- Energy in Germany
- Energy transition
- Energy transition in Germany
- List of power stations in Germany
- Nuclear energy policy
- Nuclear power by country
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External links
- German Reactor Safety Authority (GRS)
- "Germany split over green energy", BBC
- "Germany says auf Wiedersehen to nuclear power, guten Tag to renewables", Grist magazine, 12 August 2005
- The German federal ministry of environment, nature conservation and reactor safety about the phase-out
- Nuclear Engineering Society of Germany (KTG)
- German Nuclear Energy Association (KernD)