Nuclear power in India
This article needs to be updated.(September 2023) |
In October 2010, India drew up a plan to reach a nuclear power capacity of 63 GW in 2032.
Nuclear power in India has suffered from generally low capacity factors. As of 2021, the lifetime weighted energy availability factor of the Indian fleet is 66.1%.[7] However, capacity factors have been improving in recent years. The availability factor of Indian reactors was 74.4% in the years 2019–2021.[8] One of the main reasons for the low capacity factors is lack of nuclear fuel.[citation needed]
India has been making advances in the field of
History
Year | Generation (TWh) |
---|---|
2005 | 17.6
|
2006 | 17.7
|
2007 | 17.7
|
2008 | 15.0
|
2009 | 16.8
|
2010 | 23.0
|
2011 | 32.3
|
2012 | 33.1
|
2013 | 33.1
|
2014 | 34.5
|
2015 | 38.4
|
2016 | 38.0
|
2017 | 37.4
|
2018 | 39.1
|
2019 | 45.2
|
2020 | 44.6
|
2021 | 43.9
|
2022 | 46.2
|
Early nuclear physics research
As early as 1901, the
By 1939, Meghnad Saha, the Palit Professor of Physics at the
Establishment of atomic energy in India
Following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945, R.S. Krishnan, a nuclear physicist who had studied under Norman Feather and John Cockcroft, and who recognised the massive energy-generating potential of uranium, observed, "If the tremendous energy released from atomic explosions is made available to drive machinery, etc., it will bring about an industrial revolution of a far-reaching character." He further noted, however, the difficulties in harnessing nuclear power for peaceful usage, "...a great deal more research work is needed before atomic power can be put to industrial use."[17]
In March 1946, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR), under the
Early in 1947, plans were made to establish a Uranium Unit under the Geological Survey of India, to focus on identifying and developing resources of uranium-bearing minerals.
On 23 March 1948, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Atomic Energy Bill in the Indian Parliament,[22] and it was subsequently passed as the Indian Atomic Energy Act. Modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act 1946, the Act granted sweeping powers to the central government over nuclear science and research, including surveying for atomic minerals, the development of such mineral resources on an industrial scale, conducting research regarding the scientific and technical problems connected with developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the training and education of the necessary personnel and the fostering of fundamental research in the nuclear sciences in Indian laboratories, institutes and universities.[16] Around the same time, the Government of West Bengal sanctioned the construction of a nuclear physics institute under the University of Calcutta; the cornerstone was laid in May 1948,[23] and the institute was inaugurated on 11 January 1950 by Irène Joliot-Curie.[14]
With effect from 1 June 1948, the advisory board for Research in Atomic Energy, together with its parent organisation the CSIR, was folded into the new
Early research reactors
At a meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 15 March 1955, the decision was made to construct a small nuclear reactor at Trombay. The reactor would be used for training personnel for the operation of future reactors and for research, including experiments in nuclear physics, studying the effects of irradiation and the production of isotopes for medical, agricultural and industrial research.[32] In October 1955, an agreement was signed by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority and the Indian Department of Atomic Energy, under which Britain would supply uranium fuel elements for a swimming pool reactor to be designed by India.[32] The agreement further ensured the "close cooperation and mutual assistance between the Department and the Authority in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy," and provided for future design and collaboration in the construction of a high flux reactor at a later date.[33] Named Apsara, the reactor was housed in a 100 x 50 x 70 concrete building. India's and Asia's first nuclear reactor, Apsara reached criticality at 3:45 p.m on 4 August 1956 and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on 20 January 1957.[32][34][35]
In April 1955, the Canadian government under Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent offered to assist in building an NRX-type reactor for India under the Colombo Plan, of which both India and Canada were then members. Prime Minister St. Laurent expressed hopes the reactor would serve India well in the development of peaceful atomic research and development. On behalf of the Indian government, Nehru formally accepted the offer that September, stating the reactor would be made available to any accredited foreign scientists, including those from other Colombo Plan member states.[36][37][38] On 28 April 1956, Nehru and the Canadian High Commissioner to India Escott Reid signed an agreement for a "Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project." Under the terms of the agreement, Canada would provide a 40 MW CIRUS reactor for solely research purposes, including the initial manufacture and engineering of the reactor, and would also provide technical expertise, including training Indian personnel in its operation. India would supply the reactor site and foundation, and would also pay all "internal" costs, including the construction of the reactor complex, the costs of local labour and any shipping and insurance fees.[39] Under Article II of the agreement, India would make the reactor facilities available to other Colombo Plan nations. Article III stipulated that the "reactor and any products resulting from its use will be employed for peaceful purposes only;"[39] at the time, however, there were no effective safeguards to ensure this clause.[37][38] A further agreement was made with the United States government to supply 21 tons of heavy water for the reactor.[40] Construction of the reactor began later in 1956, with Indian technical personnel sent to Chalk River for training.[41] CIRUS was completed in early 1960 and after achieving criticality in July 1960, was inaugurated by Nehru in January 1961.[42] Construction of a third research reactor, ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) began at Trombay in 1958; ZERLINA was also commissioned in 1961.[43]
Beginnings of commercial nuclear power
In September 1955, the question of building a commercial nuclear power station was raised in Parliament.[44] Shortly after the world's first commercial nuclear power plant came online at Obninsk in the Soviet Union, the Soviets invited a number of Indian experts to visit it; the United States concurrently offered training in atomic energy to Indian technical and scientific personnel.[45] In August 1957, members of the Gujarat Chamber of Commerce in Ahmedabad (then in Bombay State) requested an atomic power station for their city, by which time the Indian government was actively considering the construction of at least "one or more large Atomic Power Stations to generate electricity."[46] By November 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission had recommended construction of two nuclear power stations, each consisting of two units and able to generate 500 MW of power, for a total generating capacity of 1000 MW; the government decided that a minimum of 250 MW of electricity generated from nuclear reactors would be incorporated into the Third Five Year Plan (1961–1966).[47]
In February 1960, it was decided the first power plant would be erected in Western India, with locations in Rajasthan, near Delhi and near Madras noted for future commercial reactors.[48] In September, the Punjab government requested a nuclear power station for their state.[49] On 11 October 1960, the Indian government issued a tender for India's first nuclear power station near Tarapur, Maharashtra and consisting of two reactors, each generating around 150 MW of electricity and to be commissioned in 1965.[50] In August 1961, the Indian and Canadian governments agreed to conduct a joint study on building a Canada-India nuclear power plant in Rajasthan; the reactor would be based on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and would generate 200 MW.[42] By this time, seven responses to India's global tender for the Tarapur power station had been received: three from the United States, two from the UK and one each from France and Canada.[51]
The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. RAPP-1 began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW.[citation needed] The technical and design information were given free of charge by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited to India.[citation needed] The United States and Canada terminated their assistance after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.
Recent developments
After successful commissioning of Kudankulam units 1 & 2, an agreement was made with Russia in June 2017 for the units 5 & 6 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 250 million (3.85 million US$) per MW.[52][53] Earlier, India had also entered in to an agreement with Russia in October 2016 for the units 3 & 4 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 200 million (3.08 million US$) per MW.[52]
Nuclear fuel reserves
India's domestic
In March 2011 large deposits of uranium were discovered in the Tummalapalle belt in Andhra Pradesh and in the Bhima basin in Karnataka by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India. The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promises to be one of the world's top 20 uranium reserves discoveries. 44,000 tonnes of natural uranium have been discovered in the belt so far, which is estimated to have three times that amount.[70][71][72] The natural uranium deposits of the Bhima basin has better grade of natural uranium ore, even though it is smaller than the Tummalapalle belt.
In recent years, India has shown increased interest in thorium fuels and fuel cycles because of large deposits of thorium (518,000 tonnes) in the form of monazite in beach sands as compared to very modest reserves of low-grade uranium (92,000 tonnes).[73]
Kazakhstan is the largest supplier of uranium to India providing 5,000 tonnes during 2015–19.[74] Over 15000 tonnes or uranium ore deposits are found in Rajasthan—Rohil, Sikar District[75]
Nuclear agreements with other nations
As of 2016, India has signed civil nuclear agreements with 14 countries: Argentina, Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, Russia, South Korea, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam.
India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India, during Prime Minister
On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President Hifikepunye Pohamba's five-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo-Namibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear reactors.[68] On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.[80][81]
The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in
On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President
South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in India's nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.[86]
In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement which allows the export of uranium to India. This was signed in New Delhi during
India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi and UK Prime Minister David Cameron signed Civil Nuclear Agreement on 12 November 2015.[89]
Reactor agreements
After the
In April 2021 French group EDF made a binding offer to build six third-generation EPR nuclear reactors at the Jaitapur site, with an installed capacity of 9.6 gigawatts.[93]
In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India.
Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two
In October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 nuclear reactors. Russian state-owned reactor manufacturer Rosatom stated that it would offer its third-generation VVER reactors. The agreement is not a firm contract, but rather an agreement to work toward a firm contract.[100]
The nuclear agreement with the United States led to India issuing a
The PHWR fleet of India, in analysis by
Nuclear power plans
As of 2009, India envisaged to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8% to 9% within 25 years.[103] By 2020, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity was expected to increase to 20 GW.[104] In fact, the 2020 capacity will not exceed 7 GW, as the 2018 operating capacity was only 6.2 GW, and only one more reactor was expected on line before 2020. As of 2018[update], India stands 13th in the world in terms nuclear capacity. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of which are 540 MW reactors.[105]
The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of the
Risks related to nuclear power generation prompted Indian legislators to enact the 2010
India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a
Uranium used for the weapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 tonnes of uranium per year.[110] Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum. Based on India's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 40–50 years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note with
Former Indian President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam stated while he was in office that, "energy independence is India's first and highest priority. India has to go for nuclear power generation in a big way using thorium-based reactors. Thorium, a non-fissile material is available in abundance in our country."[111] India has vast thorium reserves and quite limited uranium reserves.[112][113]
The long-term goal of India's nuclear program has been to develop an advanced
In June 2014, Kudankulam-1 became the single largest power generating unit in India (1000 MWe).[114][115]
In January 2021, India's atomic energy secretary K.N. Vyas announced that the 700-megawatt pressurised heavy water reactor of the Kakrapar Atomic Power Station would be the first of the 16 such units planned in the country.[116]
List of nuclear power plants
Currently, twenty-two nuclear power reactors have a total install capacity of 7,380 MW (2.0% of total installed base).[citation needed]
Plant name |
Unit No. |
Type | Model | Status | Capacity (MW) |
Begin building |
Commercial operation |
Closed |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chutka[117] | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | |||
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
Gorakhpur | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | |||
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
3 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
4 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
Kaiga | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Sep 1989 | 16 Nov 2000 | |
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Dec 1989 | 16 Mar 2000 | ||
3 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 30 Mar 2002 | 6 May 2007 | ||
4 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 10 May 2002 | 20 Jan 2011 | ||
5 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Under construction | 630 | ||||
6 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Under construction | 630 | ||||
Kakrapar | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Dec 1984 | 6 May 1993 | |
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Apr 1985 | 1 Sep 1995 | ||
3 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700[119] | Operational | 630 | 22 Nov 2010 | 30 Jun 2023 | ||
4 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700[119] | Operational | 630 | 22 Nov 2010 | 31 Mar 2024 | ||
Kalpakkam |
1 | FBR | PFBR[118] | Under construction | 500 | 23 Oct 2004 | ||
Kudankulam | 1 | PWR | VVER-1000 /V-412 |
Operational | 932 | 31 Mar 2002 | 31 Dec 2014 | |
2 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-412 | Operational | 932 | 4 Jul 2002 | 31 Mar 2017 | ||
3 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-412 | Under construction | 917 | 30 Jun 2017 | |||
4 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-412 | Under construction | 917 | 23 Oct 2017 | |||
5 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-412 | Under construction | 917 | 29 Jun 2021 | |||
6 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-412 | Under construction | 917 | 20 Dec 2021[120] | |||
7 | PWR | VVER-1200 |
Planned | 1100 | ||||
8 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1100 | ||||
Madras | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operation suspended (under maintenance) |
205 | 1 Jan 1971 | 27 Jan 1984 | |
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 205 | 1 Oct 1972 | 21 Mar 1986 | ||
Mahi Banswara | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | |||
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
3 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
4 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | ||||
Narora | 1 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Dec 1976 | 1 Jan 1991 | |
2 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Nov 1977 | 1 Jul 1992 | ||
Rajasthan | 1 | PHWR |
CANDU[118] |
Shut down | 90 | 1 Aug 1965 | 16 Dec 1973 | 9 Oct 2004[121] |
2 | PHWR |
CANDU[118] |
Operational | 187 | 1 Apr 1968 | 1 Apr 1981 | ||
3 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Feb 1990 | 1 Jun 2000 | ||
4 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 1 Oct 1990 | 23 Dec 2000 | ||
5 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 18 Sep 2002 | 4 Feb 2010 | ||
6 | PHWR |
IPHWR-220[118] | Operational | 202 | 20 Jan 2003 | 31 Mar 2010 | ||
7 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700[119] | Under construction | 630 | 18 Jul 2011 | |||
8 | PHWR |
IPHWR-700[119] | Under construction | 630 | 30 Sep 2011 | |||
Tarapur | 1 | BWR | BWR-1, Mark 1 | Operation suspended (under maintenance) |
150 | 1 Oct 1964 | 28 Oct 1969 | |
2 | BWR | BWR-1, Mark 1 | Operation suspended (under maintenance) |
150 | 1 Oct 1964 | 28 Oct 1969 | ||
3 | PHWR |
IPHWR-540 | Operational | 490 | 12 May 2000 | 18 Aug 2006 | ||
4 | PHWR |
IPHWR-540 | Operational | 490 | 8 Mar 2000 | 12 Sep 2005 |
Nuclear electricity generation
The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below :[122]
Fiscal Year | Nuclear electricity generation ( GWh ) |
Capacity factor |
---|---|---|
2008–09 | 14,921 | 50% |
2009–10 | 18,798 | 61% |
2010–11 | 26,472 | 71% |
2011–12 | 32,455 | 79% |
2012–13 | 32,863 | 80% |
2013–14 | 35,333 | 83% |
2014–15 | 37,835 | 82% |
2015–16 | 37,456 | 75% |
2016–17 | 37,674 | 80% |
2017–18 | 38,336 | 70% |
2018–19 | 37,813 | 70% |
2019–20 | 46,472 | 82% |
2020–21 | 43,029 | 81% |
Anti-nuclear protests
Following the March 2011
A
See also
- Economics of nuclear power plants
- Energy policy of India
- Electricity sector in India
- Energy in India
- India's three-stage nuclear power programme
- List of nuclear reactors#India
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