Nuclear power in the United Kingdom
Nuclear power in the United Kingdom generated 16.1% of the country's
The United Kingdom established the world's first civil nuclear programme,
In October 2010, the
EDF Energy owns and manages the five currently operating and two de-fuelling reactor sites.
History
20th century
The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) was established in 1954 as a statutory corporation to oversee and pioneer the development of nuclear energy within the United Kingdom.[14]
The first station to be connected to the grid, on 27 August 1956, was
In February 1966, it was announced that the first prototype
In December 1979, in the wake of the industrial disputes of the
In the end, only the Sizewell B nuclear power plant from the PWR programme was built, between 1987 and 1995. It began producing power for the national grid in February 1995.[21] Its construction followed a four-year, 16 million-word public inquiry.[21] As of 2019 it is the most recent nuclear plant to be constructed in the United Kingdom.[21] Sizewell B was intended to be the first of a smaller series of four new identical power stations, but the rest were dropped as uneconomic in the early 1990s when it was decided to privatise the electric power industry so low interest rate government finance would no longer be available.[22]
A Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP) was opened at Sellafield in 1994.[23] Construction had begun in the 1970s and cost £2.4 billion.[23]
In 1996 the UK's eight most advanced nuclear plants, seven advanced gas-cooled reactors and one pressurized water reactor, were privatised as
21st century
2002 energy review
Margaret Beckett as Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs rejected demands for an expansion of nuclear power from a lobby including energy minister Brian Wilson and Downing Street staff. She argued there was no need for new nuclear for at least 15 years given current energy prices and generation capacity.[25][26][27]
In relation to nuclear power, the conclusion of the Government's 2002 energy review[28] was that:
The immediate priorities of energy policy are likely to be most cost-effectively served by promoting energy efficiency and expanding the role of renewables. However, the options of new investment in nuclear power and in clean coal (through carbon sequestration) need to be kept open, and practical measures taken to do this.
The practical measures identified were: continuing to participate in international research; ensuring that the nuclear skill-base is maintained, and that the regulators are adequately staffed to assess any new investment proposals; shortening the lead-time to commissioning, should new nuclear power be chosen in future; permitting nuclear power to benefit from the development of carbon taxes and similar market mechanisms; and addressing the problems of long-term nuclear waste disposal. It went on to state that "Because nuclear is a mature technology within a well-established global industry, there is no current case for further government support" and that "the decision whether to bring forward proposals for new nuclear build is a matter for the private sector".
2003 Energy White Paper
The Government's Energy White Paper, published in 2003 and titled "Our Energy Future – Creating a Low Carbon Economy"[29] concluded that:
Nuclear power is currently an important source of carbon-free electricity. However, its current economics make it an unattractive option for new, carbon-free generating capacity and there are also important issues of nuclear waste to be resolved. These issues include our legacy waste and continued waste arising from other sources. This white paper does not contain specific proposals for building new nuclear power stations. However we do not rule out the possibility that at some point in the future new nuclear build might be necessary if we are to meet our carbon targets.
2006 energy review
In April 2005, advisers to
Following the 2006 review the
2007 High Court ruling
On 15 February 2007, environmental group Greenpeace won a High Court ruling that threw out the government's 2006 Energy Review. Mr Justice Sullivan presiding held that the government's review was "seriously flawed", in particular in that key details of the economics of the argument were only published after the review was completed.[36][37] Justice Sullivan held that the review's wording on nuclear waste disposal was "not merely inadequate but also misleading", and held the decision to proceed to be "unlawful".[38]
Responding to the news, Trade and Industry Secretary Alistair Darling said that there would be a fresh consultation, but that a decision was required before the end of 2007. He stated that the government remains convinced that new nuclear power plants are needed to help combat climate change and over-reliance on imported oil and gas.[39] Attention was drawn in the media to numerous connections to nuclear industry lobbyists within the Labour Party.[40]
2007 Consultation
The 2007 Energy White Paper: Meeting the Energy Challenge[41] was published on 23 May 2007. It contained a "preliminary view ... that it is in the public interest to give the private sector the option of investing in new nuclear power stations". Alongside the White Paper the Government published a consultation document, The Future of Nuclear Power,[42] together with a number of supporting documents.[43] One of these, a report by Jackson Consulting, suggested that it would be preferable to site new power stations on existing nuclear power stations sites that are owned by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority or British Energy.[44] Greenpeace responded to the release of the consultation document by repeating its position that replacing the nuclear fleet rather than decommissioning would only reduce the UK's total carbon emissions by four per cent.[45]
On 7 September 2007, several anti-nuclear groups, including Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, CND, and the WWF, announced that they had pulled out of the consultation process.[46] They stated that it appeared as if the Government had already made up its mind regarding the future of nuclear power. The business and enterprise secretary, John Hutton, responded in a Radio 4 interview "It is not the government that has got a closed view on these issues, I think it is organisations like Greenpeace that have got a closed mind. There is only one outcome that Greenpeace and other organisations want from this consultation."
2008 go-ahead given
In January 2008, the
Two consortia (EDF-Centrica and RWE-E.ON) had announced outline plans to build a total of 12.5 GW of new nuclear capacity, slightly more than the total capacity of British Energy's currently operating plants.
In 2009 government officials believed a carbon price floor would be needed to encourage companies to commit funds to nuclear build projects.[50]
2009 to 2011
In 2009 Électricité de France (EDF), the state-owned French energy company, took over British Energy, paying £12.5 billion.[51] In August 2009, the energy company Centrica purchased a 20% share from EDF.[52] A subsidiary of EDF was formed called EDF Energy.
In November 2009, the Government identified ten nuclear sites which could accommodate future reactors:
Most of these sites already have a nuclear power station; the only new sites are Braystones and Kirksanton.In October 2010, sites at Braystones, Kirksanton and Dungeness were ruled out by Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Chris Huhne with the former government's list of eleven potential sites reduced to eight.[54]
In 2010 the Nuclear Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre was created in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, led by the University of Sheffield with Rolls-Royce, anticipating involvement in any forthcoming new nuclear builds in the UK. It was funded with £15 million from the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and £10 million from the regional development agency Yorkshire Forward.[55][56]
2011 to 2016
Following the 2011
In January 2012, the campaign group Energy Fair, supported by a number of other organisations and environmentalists,[61] filed a formal complaint with the European Commission over alleged unlawful State aid in the form of subsidies for nuclear power industry, in breach of European Union competition law.[61][62] It claims that the subsidies arise from underwriting commercial risk and decommissioning costs, protection against terrorist attacks, the disposal of nuclear waste, and by providing "institutional support" in the form of various government funded or subsidised bodies such as the National Nuclear Laboratory, the Nuclear Institute, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority without providing corresponding levels of support for renewable technologies,[63] without which nuclear power would not be commercially viable, so distorting the energy market.[61][63] The group claims that the subsidies divert resources from renewable technologies that would "cut emissions more deeply, more quickly, more cheaply, and with none of the risks and other problems with nuclear power".[citation needed]
In March 2012, two of the big six power companies announced they would be pulling out of developing new nuclear power plants. The decision by
French-owned EDF, one of the two remaining consortia planning to build new nuclear plants in the UK, has indicated that the election victory of François Hollande will not change its plans in the UK,[67] despite François Hollande having proposed to cut France's reliance on nuclear power generation from 75% to 50%,[68] and despite speculation to the contrary in the UK.[69]
In 2012 Russian firm
In 2013, Tim Yeo, chairman of the Commons Energy and Climate Change Committee, stated that the government reaching an agreement over nuclear power expansion was a "matter of great urgency", and warned that Britain could run out of energy if negotiations were not concluded quickly.[74]
In the same year, a cross-party committee inquiry concluded that the UK "will not be able to meet its climate change targets without new nuclear build". A report published by the committee found that unless planned nuclear power plants are built on time, it will be "extremely challenging, if not impossible" for the country to meet its legally binding carbon reduction targets. Such a failure to build the new nuclear capacity by 2025 would also force a greater reliance on imported gas, and would affect energy security.[75]
On 26 March 2013, the government published a Nuclear Industrial Strategy which in part stated that the nuclear industry had plans for about 16 GWe of new nuclear power stations by 2030, which is at least 12 new nuclear reactors at five sites. A Nuclear Industry Council will be established, and a Nuclear Innovation and Research Advisory Board will be created "to ensure that public R&D programmes are aligned to support industrial and energy policy". Public civil nuclear R&D funding for 2010–11 was £66 million, which is low compared to some international competitors. The government will join the European Jules Horowitz Reactor research project.[76]
In April 2013, EDF's negotiations with the government over the strike price for nuclear produced electricity stalled. EDF's chief executive stated EDF was "in no hurry" to agree the strike price, and was unconcerned if the negotiations failed. Commentators believed it would take several months to reach a conclusion.[77][78]
The Office for National Statistics assessed that in 2015 the UK nuclear industry directly employed about 12,400 staff, though about 9,400 of those worked at Sellafield mostly on nuclear waste handling.[79][80]
Element | £/MWh | Per cent of price |
---|---|---|
Construction risk premium | 35 | 38% |
Other financing costs | 26 | 29% |
Operation & maintenance costs | 19.5 | 21% |
Capital cost | 11 | 12% |
Total electricity price | 92.5 |
In 2016 EDF and the UK government finalised the £92.50/MWh contract for difference (linked to inflation since 2012 – £128/MWh in 2022[82]) for the building of two EPR reactors at Hinkley Point C.[83][84]
2020 to present
The UK's November 2020 Ten Point Plan designated "new and advanced nuclear power" as a priority, with the government committing to an investment decision for at least one major nuclear power station by the end of the parliamentary term in December 2024. In February 2023, the Prime Minister's office announced the restructuring of BEIS, resulting in the establishment of the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (ESNZ) to support nuclear power expansion. By March 2023, nuclear energy had been classified as environmentally sustainable in the UK's green taxonomy, making it eligible for the same incentives as renewable energy. Additionally, the initiative 'Great British Nuclear' was set up with the goal of nuclear power contributing up to 25% of the UK's electricity by 2050.[85]
Small modular reactor development
Rolls-Royce is preparing a small modular reactor (SMR) design called the Rolls-Royce SMR, a close-coupled four-loop PWR design. Power output is 470 MWe which is above the usual range considered to be a SMR.[86][87] It sought UK government finance to support further development.[88][89]
In December 2017 the UK government provided funding of up to £56 million over three years to support research and development into advanced and small nuclear reactors.[90]
In 2018 the UK SMR industry sought billions of pounds of government support to finance their putative First of a Kind projects. The Expert Finance Working Group on Small Reactors produced a report stating that there was "a current market failure in supporting nuclear projects generally" and identifying options for government to support SMR development in the UK.[91][92]
The UK government, through UKRI, awarded £18 million in ISCF funding to a UK-based consortium led by Rolls-Royce, with matched funding of £18 million from industry. This first phase was formally concluded on 30 June 2021 and successfully developed a concept design.[93] In November 2021, the UK government provided £210 million, match funded by industry, in the second phase of development for the Rolls-Royce SMR.[94]
In 2022, the UK government launched a £120 million Future Nuclear Enabling Fund to support a limited number of nuclear projects to develop design and business cases to fast-track proposals to enter a selection process in 2023.[95] This included funding proposals for new reactor technologies to the UK such as the GE-Hitachi BWRX-300 boiling water reactor and X-energy Xe-100 high-temperature gas-cooled reactor.[96][97]
In 2023, the UK government formed
In July 2023, Energy Secretary
In January 2024, GE-Hitachi was awarded a grant of £33.6 million from the UK Government's Future Nuclear Enabling Fund. This grant was provided to support the company's plans to undergo the GDA process for its BWRX-300 SMR, which has a capacity of 300 MWe.[85]
Brexit negotiations to 2021
On 26 January 2017, the UK notified the
In 2018, the National College for Nuclear was opened at two hubs at
In 2019,
In 2020, Energy Systems Catapult analysis suggested new 10 GW nuclear power in order to achieve
In 2020, nuclear power generated 46
In June 2021, EDF announced that Dungeness B would move into the defuelling phase with immediate effect, citing "station-specific risks within some key components, including parts within the fuel assemblies" identified since September 2018.[116]
As of 2021, the British government's attitude to the involvement of China in British nuclear power had changed following worsening of China–United Kingdom relations, and it was exploring ways to block Chinese involvement, finance and their Bradwell B new nuclear development.[117][118]
On 31 January 2020, the UK formally withdrew from the European Union (EU) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) following a national referendum and parliamentary approval. In response, the UK secured new nuclear cooperation agreements with Australia, the United States, Canada, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Additionally, the UK entered into a nuclear cooperation agreement with the EU in December 2020, effective from 1 January 2021.[85]
Regulated Asset Base financing model
Following the abandonment of three large new nuclear developments at Moorside in 2018, and Wylfa Newydd and Oldbury B in 2020, primarily because the developers were unable to attract finance for the developments,[119] the Nuclear Energy (Financing) Bill was introduced in the House of Commons in October 2021. It enabled the Regulated Asset Base (RAB) financing model to be used for new nuclear, whereby consumers finance a portion of the capital costs during the construction period rather than the developers, which will reduce the cost of loans and other financing.[120][115][121] Consumers would not receive a financial return from their contributions, but would benefit later by having access to the electricity provided by the plant.[119]
The Nuclear Energy (Financing) Act 2022 came into force on 31 March 2022.[122] The power and utilities executive at Barclays bank described the RAB model as providing "a high level of certainty and confidence and predictability for investors" and "structured to produce attractive, stable, low-risk and inflation-linked returns at scale".[123] A Government Support Package would be provided to give investors protection from specified low probability but high impact risks that the private sector would not be able to bear including the risk of cost overrun above a remote threshold, disruption to debt markets, some risks for which insurance is not available, and political risks.[121]
As part of the 2022 British energy security strategy policy paper, it was announced that nuclear-generating capacity would increase from 7 GW to 24 GW by 2050 and the establishment of a new nuclear development agency named Great British Nuclear.[124] Security concerns about China also caused the government to buy China General Nuclear Power Group out of the proposed Sizewell C nuclear power station development for just over £100 million in late 2022, leaving it co-owned by EDF and the UK government.[125]
On 7 January 2022, Hunterston B was closed and moved into defuelling earlier than planned due to cracks in the graphite bricks in the reactors.[126]
In 2023, the civil nuclear sector in the UK employed about 77,400 people, of which 9,500 were involved with the Hinkley Point C new build.[127] In March 2023, EDF announced that the operational life of Heysham 1 and Hartlepool power stations would be extended a further two years until March 2026.[128]
Power stations
Operating
Power station | Type | Net MWe |
Gross MWe |
Current operator | Construction started |
Connected to grid |
Commercial operation |
Accounting closure date |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hartlepool | AGR |
1185 | 1310 | EDF Energy | 1968 | 1983 | 1989 | 2026[128] |
Heysham 1 | AGR |
1222 | 1250 | EDF Energy | 1970 | 1983 | 1989 | 2026[128] |
Heysham 2 | AGR |
1230 | 1360 | EDF Energy | 1980 | 1988 | 1989 | 2028[129] |
Torness | AGR |
1205 | 1364 | EDF Energy | 1980 | 1988 | 1988 | 2028[129] |
Sizewell B |
PWR | 1195 | 1250 | EDF Energy | 1988 | 1995 | 1995 | 2035 |
Since 2006, Hinkley Point B and Hunterston B have been restricted to about 70% of normal MWe output because of boiler-related problems requiring that they operate at reduced boiler temperatures.[130] In 2013, these two stations' power increased to about 80% of normal output following some plant modifications.[131]
In 2010, EDF announced a five-year life extension for both Heysham 1 and Hartlepool to enable further generation until 2024.[132] As of 2012, EDF expected seven-year life extensions on average across all AGRs, including the recently life-extended Heysham 1 and Hartlepool. A 20-year life extension is the strategic target for the Sizewell B PWR. These life extensions are subject to detailed review and approval, and are not included in the table above.[6][133] Hinkley Point B and Hunterston B were given seven-year life extensions in December 2012, from 2016 to 2023.[134] Hartlepool had a five-year life extension in November 2013, from 2019 to 2024.[135]
In November 2020, EDF announced that Hinkley Point B will stop generating electricity and move into the defuelling phase no later than 15 June 2022.[136][137] In December 2021, EDF announced that the closure dates for Heysham 2 and Torness were to be brought forward from 2030 to March 2028.[129] In March 2023, EDF announced that the closure dates for Heysham 1 and Hartlepool would be extended until March 2026.[128]
In March 2024, reports highlighted that EDF Energy expects to extend the operational life of
Retired
Power station | Type | Net MWe |
Construction started |
Connected to grid |
Commercial operation |
Closure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Berkeley | Magnox | 276 | 1957 | 1962 | 1962 | 1989 |
Hunterston A | Magnox | 300 | 1957 | 1964 | 1964 | 1990 |
Trawsfynydd | Magnox | 390 | 1959 | 1965 | 1965 | 1991 |
Hinkley Point A | Magnox | 470 | 1957 | 1965 | 1965 | 2000 |
Bradwell | Magnox | 246 | 1957 | 1962 | 1962 | 2002 |
Calder Hall | Magnox | 200 | 1953 | 1956 | 1959 | 2003 |
Chapelcross | Magnox | 240 | 1955 | 1959 | 1960 | 2004 |
Dungeness A |
Magnox | 450 | 1960 | 1965 | 1965 | 2006 |
Sizewell A | Magnox | 420 | 1961 | 1966 | 1966 | 2006 |
Oldbury | Magnox | 434 | 1962 | 1967 | 1968 | 2012 |
Wylfa |
Magnox | 980 | 1963 | 1971 | 1972 | 2015 |
Dungeness B |
AGR |
1040 | 1965 | 1983 | 1985 | 2021 |
Hunterston B | AGR |
1288 | 1967 | 1976 | 1976 | 2022 |
Hinkley Point B | AGR
|
840 | 1967 | 1976 | 1976 | 2022 |
A number of research and development reactors also produced some power for the grid, including two
Economics
History
The history of nuclear energy economics in the UK is complex. The first Magnox reactors were not built for purely commercial purposes, and later reactors faced delays which inflated costs (culminating in Sizewell B taking seven years from start of construction to entering service, after a lengthy public inquiry). Costs have also been complicated by the lack of national strategy or policy for spent nuclear fuel, so that a mixed use of reprocessing and short-term storage have been employed, with little regard for long-term considerations (although a national repository has been proposed).
There is a lack of consensus in the UK about the cost/benefit nature of nuclear energy, as well as ideological influence (for instance, those favouring 'energy security' generally arguing pro, while those worried about the 'environmental impact' against). Because of this, and a lack of a consistent energy policy in the UK since the mid-1990s, no new reactors have been built since
Future power stations
From 2010 until 2015, it was UK Government policy that the construction of any new nuclear power stations in the UK would be led and financed by the private sector.[141] This transfers the running and immediate concerns to the operator, while reducing (although not eliminating) government participation and long-term involvement/liability (nuclear waste, as involving government policy, will likely remain a liability, even if only a limited one). In 2010 The Daily Telegraph reported that additional incentives, such as capacity payments and supplier nuclear obligations, would be needed to persuade companies to build nuclear plants in the UK.[142] The government decided to subsidize nuclear power again in 2015.[143]
When the rest of the UK generating industry was
In January 2008, the UK government indicated that it would take steps to encourage private operators to build new nuclear power plants in the following years to meet projected energy needs. The government stated that there would be no subsidies for nuclear power. The Government hoped that the first station would be operational before 2020.[47] However, the Welsh Government remains opposed to new nuclear plants in Wales despite the approval of Wylfa as a potential site. Scotland has decided against new nuclear power stations.
In May 2008,
On 29 March 2012, E.ON and RWE npower, which had formed the joint venture Horizon to build NPPs in the United Kingdom, announced that they would not develop new nuclear power projects in the UK, focusing instead on shorter term investments, and were looking to find another company to take over Horizon.[145][146] On 29 October 2012 it was announced that
In June 2012, in research commissioned by EDF, the Institute for Public Policy Research suggested that building 18 GW of new nuclear energy capacity in the UK, with more than 10 new reactors, could create between 16,250 and 21,250 additional jobs, and enable the UK to compete in the international market for nuclear energy.[147][148] The Institute of Directors also published a report stating that nuclear energy is a "clean, cheap and safe" way of generating electricity, with 84% of its members in favour of new nuclear power in Britain.[149] However, The Times reported the cost of building each EPR had increased to £7 billion, which Citigroup analysts did not regard as commercially viable, projecting a generation cost of 16.6p/kWh for private-sector financed reactors.[150]
On 21 October 2013, EDF Energy announced that an agreement had been reached regarding new nuclear plants to be built on the site of Hinkley Point C. EDF Group and the UK Government agreed on the key commercial terms of the investment contract. The final investment decision was still conditional on completion of the remaining key steps, including the agreement of the EU Commission.[151]
In 2015, the UK government proposed to provide large subsidies to the Hinkley Point C plant, paying twice the market rate for electricity.[143]
A 2015
Rolls-Royce is preparing a small modular reactor (SMR) design called the Rolls-Royce SMR, a close-coupled four-loop PWR design. Power output is 440 MWe which is above the usual range considered to be a SMR. As of 2017 Rolls-Royce was seeking UK government finance to support further development.[86] In 2018, the UK government announced £56 million of spending to fund initial SMR research and development for eight companies.[153]
In 2017, a consensus of government and industry developed that the Contract for Difference financing model used for
In April 2020, a director of Horizon Nuclear Power stated that the future of next two nuclear builds, Wylfa and Oldbury, depended on the government accepting the
On 2 June 2020, EDF Energy announced that it had submitted a development consent order to the UK government prior to starting construction on the Sizewell C site in Suffolk.[159] However EDF have yet to organise financing, and cannot take on more construction risk in the UK. EDF is looking to the UK government to assist on financing either by offering a Regulated Asset Base model, though that puts an immediate cost burden on end consumers, or through other approaches such as a government equity stake in the development.[160] On 30 June, EDF announced that it had applied to the Office for Nuclear Regulation for a licence to build and operate Sizewell C.[161]
On 24 September 2020, when Prime Minister Boris Johnson was asked about new technology in the UK's fight against climate change, he reaffirmed support for nuclear power in the UK, by saying to the BBC, "I do think nuclear has to be part of the mix", whilst also saying that the UK can be the "Saudi Arabia of wind power".[162]
List
Proposed nuclear power stations in the United Kingdom, with currently shelved proposals in italics, are:[163]
Name | Location | Proposed
output |
Proposed
builder |
Proposed
reactor type |
start of construction | proposed start of generation | Link | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bradwell B | Essex | 2.2 GW | CGN and EDF | Hualong One | 2025 (proposed) | 2030 | [1] | Target commercial operation date about 2030[164] |
Hinkley Point C | Somerset | 3.2 GW | EDF | EPR | 2018 | 2023 (now expected around 2030) | [2] | Construction began December 2018 |
Moorside
|
Cumbria | 3-3.4 GW | NuGeneration | AP1000 | Cancelled | - | [3] | 8 November 2018 Toshiba announced withdrawal from the development[165] |
Moorside clean energy hub | Cumbria | 3.2 GW | EDF | EPR | - | - | Proposed July 2020 | |
Oldbury B
|
Gloucestershire | 2.7 GW | Horizon Nuclear Power | ABWR
|
Cancelled | [4] | Shelved in January 2019[166] | |
Sizewell C | Suffolk | 3.2 GW | EDF and CGN | EPR | 2021 (proposed)(not yet started) | [5] | Public consultation began in 2012[167]
Granted development consent by the government in 2022[168] | |
Wylfa Newydd | Anglesey | 3.0 GW | Horizon Nuclear Power | ABWR
|
Cancelled | [6] | Shelved in January 2019.[166] | |
Total of active proposals | 11.8 GW |
Two other sites,
Moorside clean energy hub
Following the cancellation of the
Sizewell C
The project has completed its stage 4 consultation, which is allowing EDF to submit its planning application which is expected to be at the start of 2020, before a decision is made on the plant's future in 2020. After this, construction is expected to start around 2021, with an accelerated timeline due to the replication of the Hinkley point C power plant on the site. On 27 May 2020, EDF energy put in a development consent order application, prior to the start of construction at the site.[167]
Waste management and disposal
The UK has a large variety of different intermediate- and high-level radioactive wastes, coming from national programmes to develop
The UK has approximately 70,000 tonnes of irradiated
On 31 July 2006, the Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM), published its final report on long-term waste management.[175] Its main recommendation was that geological disposal should be adopted. This would involve burial of high-level waste at 200 to 1,000 metres (660 to 3,280 ft) deep in a purpose-built facility with no intention to retrieve the waste in the future. It was concluded that this could not be implemented for several decades, and that there were "social and ethical concerns within UK society about the disposal option that would need to be resolved as part of the implementation process". Such a repository should start to be closed as soon as practicable rather than being left open for future generations. Fourteen additional recommendations were also made.
On 12 June 2008, a white paper, Managing Radioactive Waste Safely, A Framework for Implementing Geological Disposal was published confirming CoRWM's conclusion of geologic disposal of higher-activity wastes. The policy announcement confirmed that there would be one geologic disposal site, for both national legacy waste as well as potential wastes from future programmes. It announced that a process of volunteerism would be used in selecting a suitable site and invited communities from the UK to express interest. They would be rewarded by the infrastructure investment for the facility, jobs for the long term and a tailored package of benefits.[172]
In January 2014, the building of the first
In 2023, UK Nuclear Waste Services (NWS), launched in January 2022, began studies to evaluate sites that could be suitable for a
Decommissioning
Responsibility
The
Sites
In August 2005, the following sites were listed for decommissioning:[180]
- Berkeley, Gloucestershire
- Bradwell, Essex
- Calder Hall, Cumbria
- Capenhurst, Cheshire
- Chapelcross, Dumfriesshire
- Culham, Oxfordshire
- Dounreay, Caithness
- Drigg, Cumbria
- Dungeness, Kent
- Harwell, Oxfordshire
- Hinkley Point, Somerset
- Hunterston, Ayrshire
- Oldbury, Gloucestershire
- Sellafield / Windscale, Cumbria
- Sizewell, Suffolk
- Springfields, Lancashire
- Trawsfynydd, Gwynedd
- Winfrith, Dorset
- Wylfa, Isle of Anglesey
Costs
Prior to the 2002
In June 2003, the Department of Trade and Industry estimated that decommissioning costs, including the cost of running the facilities still in operation for their remaining life, were approximately £56 billion at 2003 prices, although the figure was 'almost certainly' expected to rise.[184] This estimate was revised in subsequent years; to £57 billion in September 2004; £63 billion in September 2005; £65 billion in March 2006; and to £73 billion in March 2007.[185][186] Around £46 billion of the £73 billion is for the decommissioning and clean-up of the Sellafield site.[187]
In May 2008 a senior director at the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority indicated that the figure of £73 billion might increase by several billion pounds.[188] In 2019, the cost was given as £129 billion.[189]
In addition to The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority's costs,
Safety
Seismicity
Until the expansion of nuclear power in the 1980s, seismic activity in the UK had not received a great deal of attention.[192] As a result of the new interest in the topic, in 1994 the British Geological Survey published a catalogue of earthquakes.[192]
Although earthquakes are relatively frequent, they rarely cause damage to well-constructed structures. Two of the largest, estimated at 5.75 (moderate) on the
The occurrence of
A 2005 report for DEFRA, conducted following the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, found that, discounting 'exotic events such as meteorite impacts', 'in most plausible circumstances it is likely that such an event would be contained by current defences, designed to resist storm surges, for all major developed areas', however the joint occurrence of events, such as a tsunami coinciding with a storm surge, was discounted.[195] The report did, however call for additional more detailed modelling to be carried out, recommended that the Met Office should provide a tsunami warning service, and that detection devices should be upgraded. A follow-up report indicated that, of the three likely scenarios modelled, a Lisbon-type event would pose the greatest danger, potentially resulting in a tsunami wave exceeding the 1:100-year extreme sea level at the Cornish peninsula by up to 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in), but being within the range elsewhere.[196] This conclusion is markedly different from the greater heights calculated by Bryant and Haslett as having been encountered in the Bristol Channel during the 1607 Bristol Channel floods.[194]
Speaking before the
Accidents
Date | Location | Description | INES level | Fatalities | Cost (in millions 2006 US$) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
19 April 2005 | Sellafield | 20 tonnes of uranium and 160 kg (350 lb) plutonium leak from a cracked pipe at the Thorp nuclear fuel reprocessing plant into a secondary containment vessel[197][198] | 2[citation needed] 3[199] | 0 | 65 |
Security
The
Public opinion and protests
In the early 1990s, concern was raised in the United Kingdom about the effect of
An opinion poll in Britain in 2002 by MORI on behalf of Greenpeace showed large support for wind power and a majority for putting an end to nuclear energy if the costs were the same.[202] In November 2005, a YouGov poll conducted by business advisory firm Deloitte found that 36% of the UK population supported the use of nuclear power, though 62% would support an energy policy that combines nuclear along with renewable technologies.[203] The same survey also revealed high public expectations for the future rate of renewables development – with 35% expecting the majority of electricity to come from renewables in only 15 years, which is more than double the government's expectation.
In the early 2000s, there was a heated discussion about nuclear waste,[204] leading to the creation of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (see above).
A large nationally representative 2010 British survey about energy issues found that public opinion is divided on the issue of nuclear power. The majority of people are concerned about nuclear power and public trust in the government and nuclear industry remains relatively low. The survey showed that there is a clear preference for renewable energy sources over nuclear power.[205]
According to a national opinion poll, support for nuclear power in the UK dropped by twelve per cent following the 2011
In October 2011, more than 200 protesters blockaded the Hinkley Point C nuclear power station site. Members of several anti-nuclear groups that are part of the Stop New Nuclear alliance barred access to the site in protest at EDF Energy's plans to renew the site with two new reactors.[209]
In January 2012, three hundred
In July 2012, a YouGov poll reported that 63% of UK respondents agreed that nuclear generation should be part of the country's energy mix, up from 61% in 2010. Opposition fell to 11%.[211]
In February 2013, a YouGov poll published in the Sunday Times found that nuclear was the most popular choice to provide for Britain's future energy needs.[212][213][214]
In February 2013, a poll published by Ipsos MORI which queried 1046 British individuals determined that support for new nuclear generation capacity was at 42%, with the proportion opposed to new nuclear generation being reported as unchanged at 20%, close to the lowest recorded proportion, by the agency in 2010, of 19% opposed. The results also report that the proportion that was undecided or neutral had increased, and it stood at 38%.[215]
In 2013, a survey by Harris Interactive of more than 2,000 UK respondents found that 'one in four people (24%) considered nuclear power to offer the greatest potential' alongside solar (23%) and ahead of wind power (18%). Immediately following the announcement of the agreement between EDF and the UK government, 35% considered it to be a positive step, 21% felt it was a negative development and 28% were indifferent.[216]
The Green Party programme postulates that "nuclear power, coal and incineration of waste will be phased out" (EN014), although this position is debated within the party, as a significant group of members called for review of the policy, which they consider anti-scientific and "irrational" and consider introduction of zero-emission nuclear power, along with renewable energy sources, to be a critical instrument for mitigation of climate change.[217][218]
In a 2021 YouGov poll, 65% of those surveyed said nuclear power should play a role in the country's climate policy and 12% expressed strong anti-nuclear sentiment, while 46% were aware that nuclear power is a low-carbon energy source.[219]
Nuclear power in Scotland
Though the
See also
- Anti-nuclear movement in the United Kingdom
- Nuclear energy in Ireland
- Nuclear energy policy
- Nuclear or Not?
- Politics of the United Kingdom
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Further reading
- Hogg, Jonathan, and Kate Brown. "Social and cultural histories of British nuclear mobilisation since 1945." Contemporary British History 33.2 (2019): 161–169.
- Peoples, Columba. "New nuclear, new security? Framing security in the policy case for new nuclear power in the United Kingdom." Security Dialogue 45.2 (2014): 156–173.
- Taylor, Simon. The Fall and Rise of Nuclear Power in Britain: A History (2016)
External links
- Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom – World Nuclear Association (Updated 14 July 2016)
- Estimated closure dates of the existing nuclear power stations, House of Lords Hansard column WA232, 24 February 2005
- Committee on Radioactive Waste Management
- BBC News Special – Nuclear Power in the UK
- Nuclear Power in the UK – Past, Present & Future, Robert Hawley – former CEO of Nuclear Electric and British Energy, World Nuclear Association Annual Symosium 2006
- Histories and memories, Ray Hall – former CEO of Magnox Electric, Nuclear Energy, April 2002, pages 107–120
- Going Critical: An Unofficial History of British Nuclear Power, ISBN 0-586-08516-5
- Nuclear in the UK – where did it go wrong?, Steve Kidd, Nuclear Engineering International, 26 August 2009
- Iain McNair, ed. (May 2013). NQK : Chapter 10 – History of UK Nuclear (PDF) (Report). Chartered Quality Institute.