Nucleobase
Nucleobases (nitrogenous bases or simply bases) are
Adenine and guanine have a
Each of the base pairs in a typical double-
Nucleobases such as adenine, guanine,
The origin of the term base reflects these compounds' chemical properties in acid–base reactions, but those properties are not especially important for understanding most of the biological functions of nucleobases.
Structure
At the sides of nucleic acid structure, phosphate molecules successively connect the two sugar-rings of two adjacent nucleotide monomers, thereby creating a long chain
Modified nucleobases
DNA and RNA also contain other (non-primary) bases that have been modified after the nucleic acid chain has been formed. In DNA, the most common modified base is
Hypoxanthine and xanthine are two of the many bases created through mutagen presence, both of them through deamination (replacement of the amine-group with a carbonyl-group). Hypoxanthine is produced from adenine, xanthine from guanine,[9] and uracil results from deamination of cytosine.
Modified purine nucleobases
These are examples of modified adenosine or guanosine.
Nucleobase | Hypoxanthine |
Xanthine |
7-Methylguanine |
Nucleoside | Inosine I |
Xanthosine X |
7-Methylguanosine m7G |
Modified pyrimidine nucleobases
These are examples of modified cytidine, thymidine or uridine.
Nucleobase | 5,6-Dihydrouracil |
5-Methylcytosine |
5-Hydroxymethylcytosine |
Nucleoside | Dihydrouridine D |
5-Methylcytidine m5C |
Pseudouridine |
Artificial nucleobases
A vast number of nucleobase analogues exist. The most common applications are used as fluorescent probes, either directly or indirectly, such as
In medicine, several nucleoside analogues are used as anticancer and antiviral agents. The viral polymerase incorporates these compounds with non-canonical bases. These compounds are activated in the cells by being converted into nucleotides; they are administered as nucleosides as charged nucleotides cannot easily cross cell membranes.[citation needed] At least one set of new base pairs has been announced as of May 2014.[12]
Prebiotic condensation of nucleobases with ribose
In order to understand how life arose knowledge is required of chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. According to the RNA world hypothesis free-floating ribonucleotides were present in the primordial soup. These were the fundamental molecules that combined in series to form RNA. Molecules as complex as RNA must have arisen from small molecules whose reactivity was governed by physico-chemical processes. RNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, both of which are necessary for reliable information transfer, and thus Darwinian evolution. Nam et al.[13] demonstrated the direct condensation of nucleobases with ribose to give ribonucleosides in aqueous microdroplets, a key step leading to RNA formation. Similar results were obtained by Becker et al.[14]
See also
- Nucleoside – Any of several glycosylamines comprising a nucleobase and a sugar molecule
- Nucleotide – Biological molecules constituting nucleic acids
- Nucleic acid notation – Universal notation using the Roman characters A, C, G, and T to call the four DNA nucleotides
- Nucleic acid sequence – Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid
References
- ISBN 9780470015902.
- ^ "Some viruses thwart bacterial defenses with a unique genetic alphabet". 5 May 2021.
- ^ Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. "Section 25.2, Purine Bases Can Be Synthesized de Novo or Recycled by Salvage Pathways". Biochemistry. 5th Edition. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- PMID 21836052.
- ^ Steigerwald, John (8 August 2011). "NASA Researchers: DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space". NASA. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ^ ScienceDaily Staff (9 August 2011). "DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space, NASA Evidence Suggests". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
- ^ Stavely, Brian E. "BIOL2060: Translation". www.mun.ca. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
- ^ "Role of 5' mRNA and 5' U snRNA cap structures in regulation of gene expression" – Research – Retrieved 13 December 2010.
- PMID 1557408.
- PMID 15051811.
- PMID 17693436.
- PMID 24805238.
- PMID 29255025.
- S2CID 203719976.