Numbered Treaties
Context | Treaties to transfer large tracts of land from the First Nations to the Crown in return for different promises laid out in the treaty |
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Signed | 1871–1921 |
Signatories | Key representatives of the Canadian Crown: Adams George Archibald, Alexander Morris, David Laird, Duncan Campbell Scott, Wemyss Mackenzie Simpson, S.J. Dawson, William J. Christie, James McKay, James Macleod, James Hamilton Ross, J.A.J. McKenna, Samuel Stewart, Daniel G. MacMartin, Henry Anthony Conroy, Key representatives of First Nations groups: Crowfoot (Blackfoot Confederacy), Big Bear (Cree Nation), Chief Powassin (Ojibwe Nation), Chief Keenooshayoo (Athabasca First Nations) |
Languages | English |
The Numbered Treaties (or Post-Confederation Treaties) are a series of eleven
These treaties came in two waves—Numbers 1 through 7 from 1871 to 1877 and Numbers 8 through 11 from 1899 to 1921. In the first wave, the treaties were key in advancing European settlement across the Prairie regions as well as the development of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In the second wave, resource extraction was the main motive for government officials.
Today, these agreements are upheld by the Government of Canada, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations. They are often criticized and are a leading issue within the fight for First Nation rights. The Constitution Act, 1982 gave protection of First Nations and treaty rights under Section 35. It states: "Aboriginal and treaty rights are hereby recognized and affirmed."[2] This phrase was never fully defined. As a result, First Nations must attest their rights in court as the case in R v Sparrow.
Background
The relationship between The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples stretches back to the first contact between European colonialists and North American Indigenous peoples. Over centuries of interaction, treaties were established concerning the interaction between the monarch and Indigenous peoples. Both the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the British North America Act, 1867 (now the Constitution Act, 1867) established guidelines that would be later used to create the numbered treaties.
The Royal Proclamation occurred in 1763, and is considered to be the foundation of treaty-making in Canada. This proclamation established a line between the
When the British North America Act 1867 was enacted, a division of power was established between the Dominion government and its provinces that separated First Nation Peoples and settlers. The federal government retained responsibility for providing health care, education, property rights and creating other laws that would affect the First Nations people.[7][8] The government of Canada replaced the British Crown as the leading authority, and gained control of 19th-century First Nations land transfers.[9]
Both the Royal Proclamation and the British North America Act impacted the procedures of governmental and First Nations negotiations. They set the stage for future negotiations that would occur, including the numbered treaties that would begin in 1871 with Treaty 1.
Negotiation
Negotiation of the Numbered Treaties began in 1871. The first seven affected those living on the prairies, while the remaining were negotiated at a later time between 1899 and 1921 and concerned those living further north. Each treaty delineates a tract of land which was thought to be the traditional territory of the First Nations signing that particular treaty.[10] For Canada it was a necessary step before settlement and development could occur further westward. No two treaties were alike, as they were dependent upon specific geographic and social conditions within the territory being addressed.[11]
Government
After confederation, the newly formed Dominion of Canada looked to expand its borders from sea to sea. There was a fear amongst the population that rapid expansion from the United States would leave the country cornered with limited arable land, lack of opportunity for economic growth, and resource extraction.
One of the conditions to ensure
Similarly, the later treaties of the turn of the century were not conducted until the land was useful for government purposes. When gold was discovered in the Klondike in the 1890s, Treaty 8 was established in the hopes of quelling tensions and conflicts between First Nations of the northern reaches and miners and traders.[17] Despite the fact that First Nations people of the Mackenzie River Valley were in economic need well before the 1920s, it was not until an abundance of oil was found that treaties needed to be implemented.[18] The Government of Canada lobbied for treaties in the north only when potential development could be supported in the region. For political and economic reasoning, the Government of Canada hastily put treaties into place without regards to First Nation well-being.[19]
First Nations
With Treaties 1–7, there was some resistance from members of the First Nations to the treaty process and growing anxiety that it would allow a flood of settlers, but many saw it as a way to secure much needed assistance.
Language
Unlike previous treaties, which included both First Nations and European tradition, the numbered treaties were conducted in a purely
The use of specific wording during the negotiations and within the treaties are also points of contention. The language used by the commissioners during the numbered treaties negotiations addressed First Nations tradition by giving them entitlement of children and the Crown was identified as Queen Mother.[30] When the commissioner recognized First Nations peoples as children and the Crown as Queen Mother it ensured the First Nations people were to always to be protected from danger by their parents and enjoy their freedom.[30] As the numbered treaties negotiations came to an end, the language use was significant to First Nations people. To seal the numbered treaties references to the natural world like, "You will always be cared for, all the time, as long as the sun walks"[31] was used to appeal to the First Nations people.
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Treaty 4
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Treaty 6
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Treaty 7
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Treaty 8
These treaty presentation copies are held in the Bruce Peel Special Collections at University of Alberta Library. Each is printed on parchment with text in black and red and a blue and red border.
List
In the table below is information about each numbered treaty including its signing date, its location, the major signers, those affected, and a brief summary of what each group received following the agreement.[32][33]
Treaty number | First signed on | Location | Major treaty signers | Those affected | Brief summary |
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Treaty 1 | 3 August 1871 | Fort Alexander |
Adams Archibald (Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba), Wemyss Simpson (Indian Commissioner) | Chippewa Tribe, Swampy Cree Tribe, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land and monetary compensation, farming tools, education.
Canada obtains: Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and restricted alcohol use on reserves |
Treaty 2 | 21 August 1871 | Manitoba Post | Adams Archibald (Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba), Wemyss Simpson (Indian Commissioner) | Chippewa Tribe of Indians, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land and monetary compensation; farming tools; education.
Canada obtains: Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and restricted alcohol use on reserves |
Treaty 3 | 3 October 1873 | Northwest Angle of the Lake of the Woods | Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), S.J. Dawson (Indian Commissioner) | The Saulteaux Tribe of the Ojibwe Indians and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and restricted alcohol use on reserves |
Treaty 4 | 15 September 1874 | Fort Qu'Appelle, Fort Ellice, Swan Lake, Fort Pelly, Fort Walsh | Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), William J. Christie (Indian Commissioner) | The Cree and Saulteaux Tribes of Indians, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gunpowder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $750/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and restricted alcohol use on reserves. |
Treaty 5 | 20 September 1875 (adhesions in February 1889) | Beren's River, Norway House, Grand Rapids | Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), James McKay (Indian Commissioner) | The Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Tribes of Indians, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gunpowder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $300/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves when desired by First Nations, and deemed appropriate by Canada.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; and full control of schooling on reserves. |
Treaty 6 | 28 August 1876 (adhesion 9 September 1876, and February 1889) | Fort Carlton, Fort Pitt | Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), James McKay (Indian Commissioner), William J. Christie (Indian Commissioner) | The Plain and Wood Cree Tribes of Indians, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gunpowder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $1500/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves when desired by First Nations, and deemed appropriate by Canada; medicine chest clause is implemented; additional assistance is available for pestilence or famine relief
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; control of healthcare on reserves through the medicine chest initiative. |
Treaty 7 | 22 September 1877 | "Blackfoot Crossing" of the Bow River, Fort Macleod | David Laird (Government Official), James Macleod (Indian Commissioner), | The Stony , and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. |
First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition totalling $2000/year; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; have right to build and maintain infrastructure on reserves; salary is allocated to hire a school teacher for reserve school.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves. |
Treaty 8 | 8 July 1899 (adhesions until 1901) | David Laird (Treaty Commissioner), J.H. Ross (Treaty Commissioner), J.A.J. McKenna (Treaty Commissioner) | The Cree, Beaver, Chipewyan, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition and fishing net twine totalling $1 per family head; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; money is set aside to hire school teachers as needed.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; ability to buy and sell Aboriginal land with their consent. | |
Treaty 9 | 6 November 1905 | Osnaburg, Fort Hope, Marten Falls, Fort Albany, Moose Factory, New Post, Abitibi, Matachewan, Mattagami, Flying Post, New Brunswick House, Long Lake | Duncan Campbell Scott (Treaty Commissioner), Samuel Stewart (Treaty Commissioner), Daniel G. MacMartin | The Ojibway, Cree, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition and fishing net twine totalling $1 per family head; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; funds to hire teachers, construct schools, and purchase supplies are available, but with Canada's authorization.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; full control funds for education. |
Treaty 10 | 7 November 1906 | Île-à-la-Crosse, Lac du Brochet | J.A.J. McKenna (Treaty Commissioner) | The Chipewyan, Cree, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. | First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; unspecified amount of ammunition and twine distributed as government sees fit; provision for childhood education; furnishings for agricultural assistance
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance. |
Treaty 11 | 27 June 1921 until 22 August 1921 | Northwest Territories; Fort Providence, Fort Simpson, Fort Wrigley, Fort Norman, Good Hope, Arctic Red River, Fort McPherson, Fort Liard, Fort Rae | Duncan Campbell Scott (Governor General/Major Signer), Henry Anthony Conroy (Indian Commissioner) | The Loucheux, Hare , and other Indians, inhabitants of the territory within the limits hereinafter |
First Nations receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on ceded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; provision for childhood education; furnishings for agricultural assistance; have right to build and maintain infrastructure on reserves; provision for childhood education; each family receives $50 annually for fishing twine and trapping; distribution of agricultural assistance possible.
Canada obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; ability to buy and sell Aboriginal land with permission; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance. |
Perspectives
Government
The Crown's intentions were based upon expansion and transition. The treaties allowed the fur trading territory to house a new settler society. As stated in the written terms of the numbered treaties, the Crown desired "peace and goodwill" between First Nations and Her Majesty.[34] In the view of the Crown, treaties were the agreement to trade First Nations territory for "bounty and benevolence". This language makes the First Nations wards of the state and under the government's protection.[34] With these agreements, not only could the Dominion of Canada expand west and northward, but also First Nations could make the transition into a new economy.[35] No longer would First Nations be dependent on a nomadic lifestyle, but rather begin to adapt and integrate into a western settlement society through farming and other entrepreneurial means. To treaty makers, the treaties were essentially a beneficial commercial exchange of both land and identity.
First Nations
Originally, First Nations people felt the treaties had the potential to satisfy the needs of their communities and foster mutual respect and understanding between themselves, the Crown, and all people of Canada.[36]: 5 Throughout the signing of the treaties, First Nations believed that their agreement was everlasting, and had many reasons for believing so. For example, during the signing of Treaty 6, a pipe ceremony was conducted before the signing stipulating that nothing but the truth was to be spoken during negotiations.[37]
Effects and violations
Many First Nations groups felt the numbered treaties signed by the Dominion Government and their First Nations chiefs between 1877 and 1921 were rushed and disorganized, limiting to the Indigenous way of life and ultimately had poor results due to unfulfilled promises.[38] Because of the treaties, Canada was seen as an oppressive colonizer at this time, most prominently because the government was more concerned with changing the various First Nations groups, rather than negotiating and collaborating with them.[39] Some of the most prominent effects of the numbered treaties for First Nations groups included limited funds for education, supplies (such as fishing net twine) and minimal allocation of land as First Nations reserves. Upon signing the treaties, Canada obtained control of most aspects of society, especially in schooling, resource extraction, land use and implementation of laws for various social issues (such as alcohol policies).
The Dominion Government also violated many of the treaty terms; in restructuring and mandating education through the creation of residential schools, the government breached the treaty agreements around the question of education.[40] Many First Nations were allocated less reserve lands than they were supposed to according to the Treaty, which resulted in many indigenous land claims based on treaty rights entitlements.[41] Also, First Nations felt the agreements from the numbered treaties were dishonoured when their traditional forms of governance were removed and they became "wards of the state", and when Indian agents began to control the sale of their seeds and livestock.[28] Further restrictions and policies were put in place that controlled First Nations' way of life beyond the original stipulations that were outlined in the numbered treaties.
The American Indian Movement of the 1960s interpreted the treaties as being invalid because they were:
- coerced, accordingly not an agreement between equal partners[42]
- breached many times in their history by the government,[43] notably by the residential school system and resource extraction
- not reached by agreement with the lawful hereditary chiefs, and especially without the involvement of women who by tradition often had final authority
As a result of the agency asserted during treaty negotiations and the active pursuit of treaty revisions by Indigenous leaders like Plains Cree chiefs Pitikwahanapiwiyin (also known as Pound Maker) and Mistahimaskwa (Big Bear), Crown officials acting to establish and maintain the Numbered Treaties had to resort to exploiting environmental conditions such as epidemics and hunger crises as well as utilizing underhanded tactics of arrest and incarceration of leaders in order to gain control over and coerce First Nations who continuously protested the broken promises, attacks on Indigenous autonomy, and theft of land surrounding the Crown's manipulations of agreed upon Treaty terms and language.
Legacy
In 1981, all provinces other than Quebec agreed to a constitutional amendment, which included a reiteration of the rights of the indigenous peoples of Canada as established by former treaties (Chapter 35). Subsequent attempts (Meech Lake Accord, Charlottetown Accord) to try to appease the government of Quebec with certain constitutional provisions, such as the recognition of Quebec as a "distinct society" failed in part due to First Nations opposition. Many aboriginal leaders saw this renegotiation as an opportune time to enshrine the increased rights and powers and recognition that they had been campaigning for since the process of patriating the Canadian constitution began in the 1970s. With Newfoundland and Manitoba as the only provinces yet to sign the Meech Lake Accord, First Nations groups in Manitoba mobilized and managed, with the legislative maneuvering of the then Chief of the Red Sucker Lake First Nation and member of the Manitoba Legislative Assembly Elijah Harper, to delay the ratification of the accord until the legislative session ended for the summer, essentially "killing" the bill to ratify the accord, and with that, the Meech Lake Accord itself. Later, controversy occurred during the 1995 Quebec independence referendum, with differing points of view regarding the rights of provincial and indigenous nations to end or maintain their union with Canada, though it had never been in dispute that First Nations would have to voluntarily agree with their formal treaty partner, the Canadian Crown, to modify the treaties.[44][45]
In 2010, Canada signed the United Nations
In 2012 the Idle No More movement and subsequent hunger strike by Attawapiskat First Nation Chief Theresa Spence brought the assertion that the treaties provide for direct Crown recourse back to public attention. Chief Spence demanded direct Crown attention to the Cabinet's attempt to remove federal government oversight of lands and waters and environmental issues that duplicated provincial oversight of the same. After an agreement by opposition parties was struck to end Chief Spence's hunger strike, the legal analysis that supported the principle of direct Crown recourse was adamantly supported by interim Liberal Party of Canada leader Bob Rae[48] and others. Idle No More itself presented its legal analysis via Pamela Palmater.[49] Her analysis resembled that of Matthew Coon Come, who summarized the Grand Council of the Crees position in a scholarly analysis of the Quebec sovereignty movement and its authority to withdraw from Confederation taking First Nations territory with it. Both his analysis and Palmater's emphasize the need for voluntary renegotiation of treaties between equal partners, and the impossibility of cutting off any avenue of appeal to the Crown.
In 2024, APTN premiered Treaty Road, a documentary series about the treaties and their impact on Canada's indigenous peoples.[50]
See also
References
- ^ "Numbered Treaty Overview". Canada in the Making. Canadiana.org. Archived from the original on 9 April 2004. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
The Numbered Treaties - also called the Land Cession or Post-Confederation Treaties - were signed between 1871 and 1921, and granted the Government of Canada large tracts of land throughout the Prairies, Canadian North and Northwestern Ontario for white settlement and industrial use. In exchange for the land, Canada promised to give the Aboriginal peoples various items, such as cash, blankets, tools, farming supplies, and so on. The impact of these treaties can be still felt in modern times.
- ^ "PART II: RIGHTS OF THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OF CANADA". Justice Laws Website. Government of Canada. 9 March 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
- JSTOR 4247979.
- ^ Government of Canada. "History of the Royal Proclamation". 250th Anniversary of the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- S2CID 145581484. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- doi:10.3138/chr.1060. Archived from the originalon 17 March 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- JSTOR 20054208.
- ISBN 0-88755-166-1.
- ^ Whitehouse, Derek (1994). "The Numbered Treaties: Similar Means to Dichotomous Ends". Past Imperfect. 3: 30. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- S2CID 143766395. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ^ Daschuck (2013), p. 79.
- ISBN 0802066488.
- ISBN 978-1552382301.
- ^ Copy Or Extracts of Correspondence Between the Colonial Office, the Government of the Canadian Dominion and the Hudson's Bay Company Relating to the Surrender of Rupert's Land by the Hudson's Bay Company: and for the Admission Thereof into the Dominion of Canada. Great Britain. 1869.
- ^ Government of Canada (2013). "The Numbered Treaties (1871–1921)". Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ISBN 0802066488.
- ISBN 0802081533.
- ISBN 0802081533.
- ISBN 0802081533.
- ^ "Aboriginal Victimization in Canada: A Summary of the Literature". Victims of Crime Research Digest No. 3. Canada Department of Justice. 30 April 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
- ^ Daschuck (2013), p. 96.
- ^ Daschuck (2013), p. 82.
- ISBN 9780802095152.
- JSTOR 1602197.
- ^ Whitehouse, Derek (1994). "The Numbered Treaties: Similar Means to Dichotomous Ends". Past Imperfect. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ISBN 0802081533.
- ISBN 0774804203.
- ^ a b Krasowski, Sheldon Kirk (2011). Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties Between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples. Regina: University of Regina Press. p. 33.
- ^ Powassom, Chief. "Paypom Treaty" (PDF). Grand Council of Treaty #3. Government of the Anishinaabe Nation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ^ a b Krasowski, Sheldon Kirk (2011). Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties Between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples. Regina: University of Regina Press. p. 29.
- ISBN 978-1895830316.
- ^ "Treaty Texts". Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. Government of Canada. 29 August 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
- ^ "Canada in the Making: Treaty Overview". Canadiana. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
- ^ a b Ray, Miller & Tough (2002), p. 59.
- ^ Ray, Miller & Tough (2002), p. 5.
- ISBN 978-0978268503.
- ^ Krasowski, Sheldon (2011). Mediating the Numbered Treaties: Eyewitness Accounts of Treaties Between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples, 1871-1876. Regina: University of Regina. p. 32.
- ISBN 978-0802097415.
- ISBN 978-0802097415.
- JSTOR 1602197. Archived from the original(PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- ^ Albers, Gretchen. "Indigenous Land Claims | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
- ISBN 978-1433105012.
- ISBN 0886293502.
- ^ "Canadian Aboriginals stop a constitutional amendment (Meech Lake Accord), 1990 | Swarthmore College Global Nonviolent Action Database". nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Retrieved 29 September 2018.
- ^ "The Death of the Meech Lake Accord | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 29 September 2018.
- ^ "UN envoy criticizes government over Attawapiskat". CTV News. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
- ^ "Federal Court grants rights to Métis, non-status Indians". CBC. 8 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
- ^ "Struggle will continue: Spence Spokesman". CBC. 24 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
- ^ Bambury, Brent (4 January 2013). "Pam Palmater: Treaty Rights, Bill C-45 and Idle No More". CBC Radio. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
- ^ Greg David, "Treaty Road, the ground-breaking docuseries, premieres March 5 on APTN". TV, eh?, February 1, 2024.
- Asch, Michael (1998). Aboriginal and treaty rights in Canada : essays on law, equality, and respect for difference. University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-0581-1.
- Daschuck, James (13 May 2013). Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. University of Regina Press. ISBN 978-0-88977-296-0.
- Ray, Arthur J.; Miller, Jim; Tough, Frank (24 January 2002). Bounty and Benevolence: A History of Saskatchewan Treaties. McGill-Queens University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2060-8.
External links
- Numbered Treaties (The Government of Manitoba)
- The Atlas of Canada Historical Indian Treaties (Natural Resources Canada)