OS/2
Slovenian, Portuguese, Russian | |
Platforms | x86, PowerPC |
---|---|
Kernel type | Hybrid kernel |
Influenced by | MS-DOS, IBM PC DOS |
Default user interface | Workplace Shell |
License | Proprietary |
Succeeded by | eComStation ArcaOS |
Official website | OS/2 Warp (Archived) |
OS/2 (Operating System/2) is a series of computer
OS/2 was intended as a protected-mode successor of PC DOS targeting the Intel 80286 processor. Notably, basic system calls were modeled after MS-DOS calls; their names even started with "Dos" and it was possible to create "Family Mode" applications – text mode applications that could work on both systems.[5] Because of this heritage, OS/2 shares similarities with Unix, Xenix, and Windows NT.
Up to $990 million per year was spent developing OS/2 and its replacement. OS/2 sales were largely concentrated in networked computing used by corporate professionals; however, by the early 1990s, it was overtaken by Microsoft Windows NT. While OS/2 was arguably technically superior to Microsoft Windows 95, OS/2 failed to develop much penetration in the mass market consumer and stand-alone desktop PC segments.
IBM discontinued its support for OS/2 on December 31, 2006.[6] Since then, OS/2 has been developed, supported and sold by two different third-party vendors under license from IBM – first by Serenity Systems as eComStation since 2001,[7] and later by Arca Noae LLC as ArcaOS since 2017.[8][9][10]
Development
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2012) |
1985–1990: Joint IBM–Microsoft development
The development of OS/2 began when IBM and Microsoft signed the "Joint Development Agreement" in August 1985.[11][12] It was code-named "CP/DOS" and it took two years for the first product to be delivered.
OS/2 1.0 (1987)
OS/2 1.0 was announced in April 1987 and released in December. The original release only ran in
Communications and database-oriented extensions were delivered in 1988, as part of OS/2 1.0 Extended Edition:
OS/2 1.1 (1988)
The promised user interface,
The Extended Edition of 1.1, sold only through IBM sales channels, introduced distributed database support to IBM database systems and SNA communications support to IBM mainframe networks.
OS/2 1.2 (1989)
In 1989, Version 1.2 introduced Installable Filesystems and, notably, the
The Extended Edition of 1.2 introduced TCP/IP and Ethernet support.
OS/2- and Windows-related books of the late 1980s acknowledged the existence of both systems and promoted OS/2 as the system of the future.[18]
1990: Breakup
OS/2 1.3 (1990)
The collaboration between IBM and Microsoft unravelled in 1990, between the releases of Windows 3.0 and OS/2 1.3. During this time, Windows 3.0 became a tremendous success, selling millions of copies in its first year.[19] Much of its success was because Windows 3.0 (along with MS-DOS) was bundled with most new computers.[20] OS/2, on the other hand, was available only as an additional stand-alone software package. In addition, OS/2 lacked device drivers for many common devices such as printers, particularly non-IBM hardware.[21] Windows, on the other hand, supported a much larger variety of hardware. The increasing popularity of Windows prompted Microsoft to shift its development focus from cooperating on OS/2 with IBM to building its own business based on Windows.[22]
Several technical and practical reasons contributed to this breakup. The two companies had significant differences in culture and vision. Microsoft favored the open hardware system approach that contributed to its success on the PC. IBM sought to use OS/2 to drive sales of its own hardware, and urged Microsoft to drop features, such as
The two products have significant differences in API. OS/2 was announced when Windows 2.0 was near completion, and the Windows API already defined. However, IBM requested that this API be significantly changed for OS/2.[25] Therefore, issues surrounding application compatibility appeared immediately. OS/2 designers hoped for source code conversion tools, allowing complete migration of Windows application source code to OS/2 at some point. However, OS/2 1.x did not gain enough momentum to allow vendors to avoid developing for both OS/2 and Windows in parallel.
OS/2 1.x targets the
Given these issues, Microsoft started to work in parallel on a version of Windows which was more future-oriented and more portable. The hiring of Dave Cutler, former VAX/VMS architect, in 1988 created an immediate competition with the OS/2 team, as Cutler did not think much of the OS/2 technology and wanted to build on his work on the MICA project at Digital rather than creating a "DOS plus". His NT OS/2 was a completely new architecture.[27]
IBM grew concerned about the delays in development of OS/2 2.0. Initially, the companies agreed that IBM would take over maintenance of OS/2 1.0 and development of OS/2 2.0, while Microsoft would continue development of OS/2 3.0. In the end, Microsoft decided to recast NT OS/2 3.0 as Windows NT, leaving all future OS/2 development to IBM. From a business perspective, it was logical to concentrate on a consumer line of operating systems based on DOS and Windows, and to prepare a new high-end system in such a way as to keep good compatibility with existing Windows applications. While it waited for this new high-end system to develop, Microsoft would still receive licensing money from Xenix and OS/2 sales. Windows NT's OS/2 heritage can be seen in its initial support for the
1990–1996: Post-breakup
OS/2 2.0 and DOS compatibility (1992)
OS/2 2.0 was released in April 1992. At the time, the suggested retail price was US$195, while Windows retailed for $150.[29]
OS/2 2.0 provided a 32-bit API for native programs, though the OS itself still contained some 16-bit code and drivers. It also included a new OOUI (object-oriented user interface) called the Workplace Shell. This was a fully object-oriented interface that was a significant departure from the previous GUI. Rather than merely providing an environment for program windows (such as the Program Manager), the Workplace Shell provided an environment in which the user could manage programs, files and devices by manipulating objects on the screen. With the Workplace Shell, everything in the system is an "object" to be manipulated.
OS/2 2.0 was touted by IBM as "a better DOS than DOS and a better Windows than Windows".[30] It managed this by including the fully-licensed MS-DOS 5.0, which had been patched and improved upon. For the first time, OS/2 was able to run more than one DOS application at a time. This was so effective that it allowed OS/2 to run a modified copy of Windows 3.0, itself a DOS extender, including Windows 3.0 applications.
Because of the limitations of the
Like most 32-bit environments, OS/2 could not run protected-mode DOS programs using the older
Unlike Windows NT, OS/2 always allowed DOS programs the possibility of masking real hardware interrupts, so any DOS program could
OS/2 2.1 and Windows compatibility (1993)
OS/2 2.1 was released in 1993. This version of OS/2 achieved compatibility with Windows 3.0 (and later Windows 3.1) by adapting Windows user-mode code components to run inside a virtual DOS machine (VDM). Originally, a nearly complete version of Windows code was included with OS/2 itself: Windows 3.0 in OS/2 2.0, and Windows 3.1 in OS/2 2.1. Later, IBM developed versions of OS/2 that would use whatever Windows version the user had installed previously, patching it on the fly, and sparing the cost of an additional Windows license.[32] It could either run full-screen, using its own set of video drivers, or "seamlessly," where Windows programs would appear directly on the OS/2 desktop. The process containing Windows was given fairly extensive access to hardware, especially video, and the result was that switching between a full-screen WinOS/2 session and the Workplace Shell could occasionally cause issues.[33]
Because OS/2 only runs the user-mode system components of Windows, it is incompatible with Windows device drivers (VxDs) and applications that require them.
Multiple Windows applications run by default in a single Windows session – multitasking cooperatively and without memory protection – just as they would under native Windows 3.x. However, to achieve true isolation between Windows 3.x programs, OS/2 can also run multiple copies of Windows in parallel, with each copy residing in a separate VDM. The user can then optionally place each program either in its own Windows session – with preemptive multitasking and full memory protection between sessions, though not within them – or allow some applications to run together cooperatively in a shared Windows session while isolating other applications in one or more separate Windows sessions. At the cost of additional hardware resources, this approach can protect each program in any given Windows session (and each instance of Windows itself) from every other program running in any separate Windows session (though not from other programs running in the same Windows session).[34]
Whether Windows applications are running in full-screen or windowed mode, and in one Windows session or several, it is possible to use DDE between OS/2 and Windows applications, and OLE between Windows applications only.[35]
IBM's OS/2 for Windows product (codename Ferengi), also known as "OS/2, Special Edition", was interpreted as a deliberate strategy "of cashing in on the pervasive success of the Microsoft platform" but risked confusing consumers with the notion that the product was a mere accessory or utility running on Windows such as Norton Desktop for Windows when, in fact, it was "a complete, modern, multi-tasking, pre-emptive operating system", itself hosting Windows instead of running on it. Available on CD-ROM or 18 floppy disks, the product documentation reportedly suggested Windows as a prerequisite for installing the product, also being confined to its original FAT partition, whereas the product apparently supported the later installation of Windows running from an HPFS partition, particularly beneficial for users of larger hard drives. Windows compatibility, relying on patching specific memory locations, was reportedly broken by the release of Windows 3.11, prompting accusations of arbitrary changes to Windows in order to perpetrate "a deliberate act of Microsoft sabotage" against IBM's product.[34]
OS/2 Warp 3 (1994)
Released in 1994, OS/2 version 3.0 was labelled as OS/2 Warp to highlight the new performance benefits, and generally to freshen the product image. "Warp" had originally been the internal IBM name for the release: IBM claimed that it had used
OS/2 Warp offers a host of benefits over OS/2 2.1, notably broader hardware support, greater multimedia capabilities, Internet-compatible networking, and it includes a basic office application suite known as IBM Works. It was released in two versions: the less expensive "Red Spine" and the more expensive "Blue Spine" (named for the color of their boxes). "Red Spine" was designed to support Microsoft Windows applications by utilizing any existing installation of Windows on the computer's hard drive. "Blue Spine" includes Windows support in its own installation, and so can support Windows applications without a Windows installation. As most computers were sold with Microsoft Windows pre-installed and the price was less, "Red Spine" was the more popular product.[39] OS/2 Warp Connect—which has full LAN client support built-in—followed in mid-1995. Warp Connect was nicknamed "Grape".[15]
In OS/2 2.0, most performance-sensitive subsystems, including the graphics (Gre) and multimedia (MMPM/2) systems, were updated to 32-bit code in a fixpack, and included as part of OS/2 2.1. Warp 3 brought about a fully 32-bit windowing system, while Warp 4 introduced the object-oriented 32-bit GRADD display driver model.
Workplace OS (1995)
In 1991, IBM started development on an intended replacement for OS/2 called Workplace OS. This was an entirely new product, brand new code, that borrowed only a few sections of code from both the existing OS/2 and AIX products. It used an entirely new microkernel code base, intended (eventually) to host several of IBM's operating systems (including OS/2) as microkernel "personalities". It also included major new architectural features including a system registry, JFS, support for UNIX graphics libraries, and a new driver model.[40]
Workplace OS was developed solely for POWER platforms, and IBM intended to market a full line of PowerPCs in an effort to take over the market from Intel. A mission was formed to create prototypes of these machines and they were disclosed to several corporate customers, all of whom raised issues with the idea of dropping Intel.
Advanced plans for the new code base would eventually include replacement of the
A partially functional pre-alpha version of Workplace OS was demonstrated at Comdex, where a bemused Bill Gates stopped by the booth. The second and last time it would be shown in public was at an OS/2 user group in Phoenix, Arizona; the pre-alpha code refused to boot.
It was released in 1995. But with $990 million being spent per year on development of this as well as Workplace OS, and no possible profit or widespread adoption, the end of the entire Workplace OS and OS/2 product line was near.
OS/2 Warp 4 (1996)
In 1996, Warp 4 added
OS/2 sales were largely concentrated in networked computing used by corporate professionals; however, by the early 1990s, it was overtaken by Microsoft Windows NT. While OS/2 was arguably technically superior to Microsoft
1996–2001: Downsizing
A project was launched internally by IBM to evaluate the looming competitive situation with Microsoft Windows 95. Primary concerns included the major code quality issues in the existing OS/2 product (resulting in over 20 service packs, each requiring more diskettes than the original installation), and the ineffective and heavily matrixed development organization in Boca Raton (where the consultants reported that "basically, everybody reports to everybody") and Austin.
That study, tightly classified as "Registered Confidential" and printed only in numbered copies, identified untenable weaknesses and failures across the board in the Personal Systems Division as well as across IBM as a whole. This resulted in a decision being made at a level above the Division to cut over 95% of the overall budget for the entire product line, end all new development (including Workplace OS), eliminate the Boca Raton development lab, end all sales and marketing efforts of the product, and lay off over 1,300 development individuals (as well as sales and support personnel). $990 million had been spent in the last full year. Warp 4 became the last distributed version of OS/2.
2001–2006: Discontinuation and end-of-life
Although a small and dedicated community remains faithful to OS/2,[45] OS/2 failed to catch on in the mass market and is little used outside certain niches where IBM traditionally had a stronghold. For example, many bank installations, especially automated teller machines, run OS/2 with a customized user interface; French SNCF national railways used OS/2 1.x in thousands of ticket selling machines.[citation needed] Telecom companies such as Nortel used OS/2 in some voicemail systems. Also, OS/2 was used for the host PC used to control the Satellite Operations Support System equipment installed at NPR member stations from 1994 to 2007, and used to receive the network's programming via satellite.[citation needed]
Although IBM began indicating shortly after the release of Warp 4 that OS/2 would eventually be withdrawn, the company did not end support until December 31, 2006,[46] with sales of OS/2 stopping on December 23, 2005. The latest IBM OS/2 Warp version is 4.52, which was released for both desktop and server systems in December 2001.
IBM is still delivering defect support for a fee.[46][47] IBM urges customers to migrate their often highly complex applications to e-business technologies such as Java in a platform-neutral manner. Once application migration is completed, IBM recommends migration to a different operating system, suggesting Linux as an alternative.[48][49][50]
2001–present: Third-party development
After IBM discontinued development of OS/2, various third parties approached IBM to take over future development of the operating system. The OS/2 software vendor Stardock made such a proposal to IBM in 1999, but it was not followed through by the company.[51] Serenity Systems succeeded in negotiating an agreement with IBM, and began reselling OS/2 as eComStation in 2001.[52] eComStation is now sold by XEU.com, the most recent version (2.1) was released in 2011.[53] In 2015, Arca Noae, LLC announced that they had secured an agreement with IBM to resell OS/2.[8] They released the first version of their OS/2-based operating system in 2017 as ArcaOS.[10] As of 2023, there have been multiple releases of ArcaOS, and it remains under active development.[54]
Petitions for open source
Many people hoped that IBM would release OS/2 or a significant part of it as open source. Petitions were held in 2005 and 2007, but IBM refused them, citing legal and technical reasons.[55] It is unlikely that the entire OS will be open at any point in the future because it contains third-party code to which IBM does not have copyright, and much of this code is from Microsoft. IBM also once engaged in a technology transfer with Commodore, licensing Amiga technology for OS/2 2.0 and above, in exchange for the REXX scripting language.[56][unreliable source?] This means that OS/2 may have some code that was not written by IBM, which can therefore prevent the OS from being re-announced as open-sourced in the future.[57][failed verification][58] On the other hand, IBM donated Object REXX for Windows and OS/2 to the Open Object REXX project maintained by the REXX Language Association on SourceForge.[59]
There was a petition, arranged by OS2World, to open parts of the OS. Open source operating systems such as Linux have already profited from OS/2 indirectly through IBM's release of the improved JFS file system, which was ported from the OS/2 code base. As IBM didn't release the source of the OS/2 JFS driver, developers ported the Linux driver back to eComStation and added the functionality to boot from a JFS partition. This new JFS driver has been integrated into eComStation v2.0, and later into ArcaOS 5.0.
Summary of releases
Release dates refer to the US English editions unless otherwise noted.[60][61]
Date | Version |
---|---|
December 1987 | OS/2 1.0 |
November 1988 | OS/2 1.1 |
October 1989 | OS/2 1.2 |
December 1990 | OS/2 1.3 |
October 1991 | OS/2 2.0 LA (Limited Availability) |
April 1992 | OS/2 2.0 |
October 1992 | OS/2 2.00.1 |
May 1993 | OS/2 2.1 |
November 1993 | OS/2 for Windows |
February 1994 | OS/2 2.11 |
July 1994 | OS/2 2.11 SMP |
October 1994 | OS/2 Warp 3 |
May 1995 | OS/2 Warp Connect |
December 1995 | OS/2 Warp, PowerPC Edition |
February 1996 | OS/2 Warp Server 4 |
September 1996 | OS/2 Warp 4 |
September 1996 | OS/2 Warp Server Advanced SMP |
November 1997 | WorkSpace On-Demand 1.0 |
October 1998 | WorkSpace On-Demand 2.0 |
April 1999 | OS/2 Warp Server for e-Business (version 4.50) |
November 2000 | OS/2 Convenience Pack 1 (version 4.51) |
November 2001 | OS/2 Convenience Pack 2 (version 4.52) |
Features and technology
User interface
The graphic system has a layer named Presentation Manager that manages windows, fonts, and icons. This is similar in functionality to a non-networked version of
WPS represents objects such as disks, folders, files, program objects, and printers using the
The multimedia capabilities of OS/2 are accessible through Media Control Interface commands. The last update (bundled with the IBM version of
comes from third parties. Sometimes it is integrated with the multimedia system, but in other offers it comes as standalone applications.Commands
This section may be too long and excessively detailed. |
The following list of commands is supported by cmd.exe on OS/2.[62][63]
- ansi
- append
- assign
- attrib
- backup
- boot
- break
- cache
- call
- cd
- chcp
- chdir
- chkdsk
- cls
- cmd
- codepage
- command
- comp
- copy
- createdd
- date
- ddinstal
- debug
- del
- detach
- dir
- diskcomp
- diskcopy
- doskey
- dpath
- eautil
- echo
- endlocal
- erase
- exit
- extproc
- fdisk
- fdiskpm
- find
- for
- format
- fsaccess
- goto
- graftabl
- help
- if
- join
- keyb
- keys
- label
- makeini
- md
- mem
- mkdir
- mode
- more
- move
- patch
- path
- pause
- picview
- pmrexx
- print
- prompt
- pstat
- rd
- recover
- rem
- ren
- rename
- replace
- restore
- rmdir
- set
- setboot
- setcom40
- setlocal
- share
- shift
- sort
- spool
- start
- subst
- syslevel
- syslog
- time
- trace
- tracebuf
- tracefmt
- tree
- type
- undelete
- unpack
- ver
- verify
- view
- vmdisk
- vol
- xcopy
Networking
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2019) |
The
Drivers
Hardware vendors were reluctant to support device drivers for alternative operating systems including OS/2, leaving users with few choices from a select few vendors. To relieve this issue for video cards, IBM licensed a reduced version of the Scitech display drivers, allowing users to choose from a wide selection of cards supported through Scitech's modular driver design.[64]
Virtualization
OS/2 has historically been more difficult to run in a virtual machine than most other legacy x86 operating systems because of its extensive reliance on the full set of features of the x86 CPU; in particular, OS/2's use of ring 2 prevented it from running in early versions of VMware.[65] Newer versions of VMware provide official support for OS/2, specifically for eComStation.[66]
ArcaOS supports being run as a
The difficulties in efficiently running OS/2 have, at least once, created an opportunity for a new
Security niche
OS/2 has few native
Problems
Some problems were classic subjects of comparison with other operating systems:
- Synchronous input queue (SIQ): if a GUI application was not servicing its window messages, the entire GUI system could get stuck and a reboot was required. This problem was considerably reduced with later Warp 3 fixpacks and refined by Warp 4, by taking control over the application after it had not responded for several seconds.[73][74]: 565
- No unified object handles (OS/2 v2.11 and earlier): The availability of threads probably led system designers to overlook mechanisms which allow a single thread to wait for different types of asynchronous events at the same time, for example the keyboard and the mouse in a "console" program. Even though select was added later, it only worked on network sockets. In case of a console program, dedicating a separate thread for waiting on each source of events made it difficult to properly release all the input devices before starting other programs in the same "session". As a result, console programs usually polled the keyboard and the mouse alternately, which resulted in wasted CPU and a characteristic "jerky" reactivity to user input. In OS/2 3.0 IBM introduced a new call for this specific problem.[75]
Historical uses
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2011) |
OS/2 has been widely used by Iran Export Bank (Bank Saderat Iran) in their teller machines, ATMs and local servers (over 35,000 working stations). As of 2011, the bank moved to virtualize and renew their infrastructure by moving OS/2 to Virtual Machines running over Windows.
OS/2 was widely used by Brazilian banks. Banco do Brasil had a peak 10,000 machines running OS/2 Warp in the 1990s. OS/2 was used in automated teller machines until 2006. The workstations and automated teller machines and attendant computers have been migrated to Linux.[76]
OS/2 has been used in the banking industry.
OS/2 was widely adopted by
OS/2 ran the faulty baggage handling system at Denver International Airport. The OS was eventually scrapped, but the software written for the system led to massive delays in the opening of the new airport. The OS itself was not at fault, but the software written to run on the OS was. The baggage handling system was eventually removed.
OS/2 was used by radio personality Howard Stern. He once had a 10-minute on-air rant about OS/2 versus Windows 95 and recommended OS/2. He also used OS/2 on his IBM 760CD laptop.
OS/2 was used as part of the Satellite Operations Support System (SOSS) for NPR's Public Radio Satellite System. SOSS was a computer-controlled system using OS/2 that NPR member stations used to receive programming feeds via satellite. SOSS was introduced in 1994 using OS/2 3.0, and was retired in 2007, when NPR switched over to its successor, the ContentDepot.
OS/2 was used to control the SkyTrain automated light rail system in Vancouver, Canada until the late 2000s when it was replaced by Windows XP.
OS/2 was used in the
OS/2 has been used by The Co-operative Bank in the UK for its domestic call centre staff, using a bespoke program created to access customer accounts which cannot easily be migrated to Windows.
OS/2 has been used by the Stop & Shop supermarket chain (and has been installed in new stores as recently as March 2010).
OS/2 has been used on ticket machines for Tramlink in outer-London.
OS/2 has been used in New York City's subway system for MetroCards.[78] Rather than interfacing with the user, it connects simple computers and the mainframes. When NYC MTA finishes its transition to contactless payment, OS/2 will be removed.[79]
OS/2 was used in checkout systems at
OS/2 was used by Trenitalia, both for the desktops at Ticket Counters and for the Automatic Ticket Counters up to 2011. Incidentally, the Automatic Ticket Counters with OS/2 were more reliable than the current ones running a flavor of Windows.[citation needed]
OS/2 was used as the main operating system for Abbey National General Insurance motor and home direct call centre products using the PMSC Series III insurance platform on DB2.2 from 1996 to 2001.
Awards
In March 1995 OS/2 won seven awards[81]
- InfoWorld Product of the Year.[82]
- Five Awards at CeBIT.
- PC Professional Magazine - Innovation of the Year award.
- CHIP Magazine named OS/2 Warp the Operating System of the Year.
- DOS International named OS/2 Warp the Operating System of the Year.
- 1+1 Magazine awarded it with the Software Marketing Quality award.
- Industrie Forum awarded it with its Design Excellence.
- SPA Best Business Software Award.
IBM products using OS/2
IBM has used OS/2 in a wide variety of hardware products, effectively as a form of embedded operating system.
Product | Product type | Usage of OS/2 |
---|---|---|
IBM 2074 | Console support controller | Used to connect 3270 sessions to host via ESCON channels. Introduced in September 2000 as a replacement for local, non-SNA 3174 Control Units. All models were withdrawn in 2006 and replaced by the Open System Adapter Integrated Console Controller (OSA ICC).[83] |
IBM 3494 | Tape library | Used as the operating system for the Library Manager (LM) that controlled the tape accessor (robot)[84] |
IBM 3745 | Communications controller | Used as the operating system for the Service Processor (SP) and if installed, the Network Node Processor (NNP).[85] |
IBM 3890 |
Document processor | The 3890/XP1 was announced November 12, 1988. It initially used OS/2 1.1 Extended Edition System/360. IBM later switched to OS/2 Warp.[87]
|
IBM 473x | ATM | Used in a range of automatic teller machines manufactured by IBM. Was also used in later 478x ATMs manufactured with Diebold. |
IBM 9672 |
IBM mainframe | Used as the operating system for the Hardware Management Console (HMC) and Support Element (SE).[88] Was also used in later mainframe models such as the IBM 2064. |
See also
- History of the graphical user interface
- Multiple Virtual DOS Machine(MVDM) – OS/2 virtual DOS machine and seamless Windows integration
- OpenDoc – Software componentry framework standard
- System Object Model– Programming framework
- Team OS/2
- Windows Libraries for OS/2
- LAN Manager
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I believe OS/2 is destined to be the most important operating system, and possibly program, of all time. As the successor to DOS, which has over 10,000,000 systems in use, it creates incredible opportunities for everyone involved with PCs.
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Further reading
- Harvey M. Deitel and Michael S. Kogan (1992). The Design of OS/2. ISBN 0-201-54889-5.
- ISBN 1-55615-117-9.
- ISBN 0-02-935671-7.
- Peter Moylan (2004-07-23). "Some fundamental OS/2 concepts". Archived from the original on 2022-12-17.
- Michal Necasek (2005-12-03). "OS/2 Warp, PowerPC Edition". The History of OS/2. Archived from the original on August 12, 2010. Retrieved April 10, 2013.—Necasek discusses an aborted port to PowerPC machines.
- Reimer, Jeremy. "Half an operating system: The triumph and tragedy of OS/2". Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
External links
- os2world.com – Community of OS/2 users
- ecomstation.ru – Community of eComStation and OS/2 users
- netlabs.org – OpenSource Software for OS/2 and eCS
- OS/2 FAQ
- hobbes.nmsu.edu – The OS/2 software repository
- EDM/2 – The source for OS/2 developers
- eCSoft/2 – The OS/2 and eComstation software guide Archived 2010-06-08 at the Wayback Machine
- osFree an open source project to build an OS/2 clone operating system
- Voyager Project, a defunct project to reimplement OS/2 on modern technology
- OS/2 to Linux API porting project
- Open Source OS/2 API implementation for Windows
- Microsoft documentation of OS/2 API compatibility with Windows NT
- The History of OS/2
- Technical details of OS/2
- OS/2 Warp 4 Installation and Update Manual; with boot disks and many links