Obesity and walking
Obesity and walking describes how the locomotion of
Biomechanics
Stride and cadence
Numerous studies have examined the differences in
Joint angle differences
In a study by DeVita and Hortobágyi, obese people were found to be more erect throughout the stance phase with greater hip
Ground reaction force
A
Net muscle moments
Lower extremity joint loading is estimated through net muscle moments, joint reaction forces, and joint loading rates. Net muscle moments can increase up to 40% as walking speeds rise from 1.2 to 1.5 m/s.[19] One could then predict that as speed increases, loads felt by the lower-extremity joints would increase as the net muscle moments and ground reaction forces increase. Browning and Kram have also found that stance-phase sagittal-plane net muscle moments are greater in obese adults when compared to lean individuals.[11]
Energetics
Metabolic rate
It is well established that obese individuals expend a greater amount of
Normalization
Many measurements are normalized to body weight in order to account for differing body weights when doing comparisons (see VO2 max testing). Normalizing body weight when comparing obese and lean individuals' metabolic rates reduces the difference, indicating that body weight rather than body fat composition is the primary indicator for the metabolic cost of walking.[24] Caution must be taken when analyzing the scientific literature to understand if findings are normalized or not because they may be interpreted differently.
Possible strategies
One possible suggested strategy to maximize energy expenditure while reducing lower joint extremity is to have obese people walk at a slow speed with an incline. Researchers found that by walking at either 0.5 or 0.75 m/s and a 9° or 6° incline respectively would equate to the same net metabolic rate as an obese individual walking at 1.50 m/s with no incline.[25] These slower speeds with an incline also had significantly reduced loading rates and reduced lower-extremity net muscle moments.[25] Other strategies to consider are slow walking for extended periods of time and training underwater to reduce loads on joints and increase lean body mass.[26]
Limitations working with obese individuals as study participants
It is often very difficult to recruit obese people that do not have other
See also
- Bioelectrical impedance analysis – a method to measure body fat percentage.
- Blubber – an extra thick form of adipose tissue found in some marine mammals.
- Body fat percentage
- Cellulite
- Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
- Effects of the car on societies
- Exercise trends
- Human fat used as pharmaceutical in traditional medicine
- Obesity and the environment
- Social influences on fitness behavior
- Starvation
- Steatosis (also called fatty change, fatty degeneration or adipose degeneration)
- Stem cells
- Subcutaneous fat
- Bariatrics
- Classification of obesity
- Classification of childhood obesity
- EPODE International Network
- Social stigma of obesity
- Walkability
- Walking audit
- Walking city
References
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- ^ Wang Y and Beydoun M. The obesity epidemic in the United States-gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiol Rev 29(1): 6–28, 2007.
- ^ Vague J, Vague P, Tramoni M, Vialettes B, and Mercier P. Obesity and diabetes. Acta Diabetologica 17(2): 87–99, 1980.
- ^ Sowers, J. Obesity and cardiovascular disease. Clin Chem. 44:1821–1825, 1998.
- ^ Calle E and Thun M. Obesity and cancer. Oncogene 23: 6365–6378, 2004.
- ^ Wolk R, Shamsuzzaman A, and Somers V. Obesity, sleep apnea, and hypertension. Hypertension 42: 1067–1074, 2003.
- ^ Felson D, Anderson J, Naimark A, Walker A, and Meenan M. Obesity and knee osteoarthritis; The Framingham study. Ann Intern Med 109:18–24, 1988.
- ^ Levine J, Weg M, Hill J, and Klesges R. Non-exercise activity thermogenesis; The crouching tiger hidden dragon of societal weight gain. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26:729–736, 2006.
- ^ Jakicic J, Winters C, Lang W, and Wing R. Effects of intermittent exercise and use of home exercise equipment on adherence, weight loss, and fitness in overweight women. JAMA 282(16): 1554–1560, 1999.
- ^ a b c Spyropoulos, P., J. C. Pisciotta, K. N. Pavlou, M. A. Cairns, and S. R. Simon. Biomechanical gait analysis in obese men. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 72:1065–1070, 1991.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Browning RC and Kram R. Effects of obesity on the biomechanics of walking at different speeds. Med Scie Sports Exerc 39(9): 1632–1641, 2007.
- ^ a b c DeVita P and Hortobagyi T. Obesity is not associated with increased knee joint torque and power during level walking. J Biomech 36: 1355–1362, 2003.
- ^ a b Hills AP, Parker AW. Locomotor characteristics of obese children. Child Care Health Dev 1992;18:29–34.
- ^ Ledin T, Odkvist LM. Effects of increased inertial load in dynamic and randomized perturbed posturography. Acta Otolaryngol 1993;113:249–52.
- ^ a b McGraw, B., McClenaghan, B.A., Williams, H.G., Dickerson, J., Ward, D.S. Gait and postural stability in obese and nonobese prepubertal boys. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 81: 484–489, 2000.
- ^ a b c Browning, RC., EA. Baker, JA. Herron, and R. Kram. Effects of obesity and sex on the energetic cost and preferred speed of walking. J. Appl. Phys. 100:390–398, 2006.
- ^ a b Browning RC and Kram R. Energetic cost and preferred speed of walking in obese vs. normal weight women. Obes Res 13: 891–899, 2005.
- ^ a b c d e Messier, S. P., W. H. Ettinger, and T. E. Doyle. Obesity: effects on gait in an osteoarthritic population. J. Appl. Biomech. 12: 161–172, 1996.
- ^ Lelas JL, Merriman GJ, Riley PO, and Kerrigan DC. Predicting peak kinematic and kinetic parameters from gait speed. Gait & Posture 17: 106–112, 2003.
- ^ Bloom WL and Marshall FE. The comparison of energy expenditure in the obese and lean. Metabolism 16: 685–692, 1967.
- ^ Melanson EL, Bell ML, Knoll JR, Coelho LB, Donahoo WT, Peters JC, and Hill JO. Body mass index and sex influence the energy cost of walking at self-selected speeds (Abstract). Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: S183, 2003.
- PMID 27184275.)
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Foster GD, Wadden TA, Kendrick ZV, Letizia KA, Lander DP, and Conill AM. The energy cost of walking before and after significant weight loss. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 888–894, 1995.
- ^ Ayub BV and Bar-Or O. Energy cost of walking in boys who differ in adiposity but are matched for body mass. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 669–674, 2003.
- ^ a b Ehlen K, Reiser R, and Browning RC. Energetics and biomechanics of inclined treadmill walking in obese adults. Med Scie Sports Exerc 43(7): 1251–1259, 2011.
- ^ Greene N, Lambert B, Greene E, Carbuhn A, Green J, and Crouse S. Comparative efficacy of water and land treadmill training for overweight or obese adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41(9):1808–1815, 2009.