Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)
The Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011) was characterized by a large
It was a period of violence and political turmoil, and saw strong foreign influence exerted on Iraqi politics. In April 2003, a
Efforts toward the
Military occupation
A
Coalition and allied Iraqi forces fought a stronger-than-expected militant
Sovereignty was transferred to a Governing Council
Legal status of the coalition presence
An international armed conflict (IAC) between the United States and Iraq in the Iraq War began when the US-led Coalition
There may be situations where the former occupier will maintain a military presence in the country, with the agreement of the legitimate government under a security arrangement (e.g., US military presence in Japan and Germany). The legality of such agreement and the legitimacy of the national authorities signing it are subject to international recognition, whereby members of the international community re-establish diplomatic and political relations with the national government.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 in 2004 looked forward to the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq.[4] Afterwards, the UN and individual nations established diplomatic relations with the Interim Government, which began planning for elections and the writing of a new constitution. As a result, the Iraq War after June 28, 2004 became a non-international armed conflict (NIAC), since US-led Coalition troops were operating in the country with the consent of the new legitimate government of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities in post-occupation Iraq fell under the laws of war applicable to NIAC, including Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions.
In January 2005, John Negroponte, US ambassador to Iraq, indicated the US government would comply with a United Nations resolution declaring that coalition forces would have to leave if requested by the Iraqi government. "If that's the wish of the government of Iraq, we will comply with those wishes. But no, we haven't been approached on this issue – although obviously we stand prepared to engage the future government on any issue concerning our presence here."[5]
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal.[6] On 3 June 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq.[7] The UN mandate under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790 expired on 31 December 2008.
Occupation (April 21, 2003–June 28, 2004)
An international armed conflict (IAC) between the US and Iraq in the Iraq War began when the US-led Coalition invaded Iraq on March 19, 2003. IAC continued after the invasion when the CPA was established on April 21 to temporarily administer the domestic affairs of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities during the invasion and occupation of Iraq fell under the laws of war applicable to IAC, including the 1949 Geneva Conventions, to which the US and Iraq are parties to, and the 1907 Hague Convention IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land, which is commonly accepted as customary international humanitarian law binding on non-signatories engaged in an IAC.[2]
2003
Fall of Saddam Hussein's government
Schools, police, courts, government, and military were shut down, which meant that most Iraqis were unemployed.[8] Cities, especially Baghdad, suffered through reductions in electricity, clean water, and telephone service from pre-war levels, with shortages that continued through at least the next year.[9]
On 1 May 2003,
There were widespread reports of looting, though much of the looting was directed at former government buildings and other remnants of the former government, and reports of
Insurgency begins
In the summer of 2003, the US military focused on hunting down the remaining leaders of the ousted government, culminating in the killing of Saddam's sons Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein on 22 July.[14] In all, over 200 top leaders of the former regime were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel.
After the initial invasion, most of the Iraqi military's former soldiers and officers offered little resistance to Coalition forces in the early days of the occupation. Many soldiers had simply gone home rather than openly fight the invading forces. This seeming acceptance of Coalition authority stemmed from the US military continuing to pay the salaries of Saddam's former soldiers, while promising senior Iraqi officers that they would have a major role to play "in building a new Iraq."
However, on 11 May 2003, the Bush Administration established the "
They favored attacking the unarmored
Saddam captured and elections urged
In December 2003, Saddam himself was
The United States and the Coalition Provisional Authority, run by Jay Garner and three deputies, including Tim Cross, opposed allowing democratic elections at this time, preferring instead to eventually hand over power to an unelected group of Iraqis.[16] More insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad to Basra in the south.
January 1, 2004–June 28, 2004
Spring fighting
In the spring, the United States and the
A truce was negotiated that put a former Ba'athist general in complete charge of Fallujah. The 1st Armored Division along with the 2nd ACR were then shifted south, because Spanish, Salvadoran, Ukrainian, and Polish forces were having increasing difficulties retaining control over
At the same time, British forces in Basra were faced with increasing restiveness, and became more selective in the areas they patrolled. In all, April, May and early June represented the bloodiest months of fighting since the end of hostilities. The Iraqi troops who were left in charge of Fallujah after the truce began to disperse and the city fell back under insurgent control.
In the April battle for Fallujah, US troops killed about 200 resistance fighters, while 40 Americans died and hundreds were wounded in a fierce battle. US forces then turned their attention to the al Mahdi Army in Najaf. A large convoy of US Army supply trucks manned by civilian contractors
Transfer of sovereignty
On June 28, 2004, under the auspices of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546, the CPA transferred limited sovereignty to a caretaker government, whose first act was to begin the trial of Saddam Hussein. The transfer marked the end of an IAC between the U.S. and Iraq. The new Iraqi government began the process of moving towards elections, though the insurgency, and the lack of cohesion within the government itself, led to repeated delays.
Militia leader Muqtada al-Sadr used his grass-roots organization and Mahdi Militia of over a thousand armed men to take control of the streets of Baghdad. The CPA soon realized it had lost control and closed down his popular newspaper. This resulted in mass anti-American demonstrations. The CPA then attempted to arrest al-Sadr on murder charges. He defied the American military by taking refuge in the Holy City of Najaf.
Post-occupation (June 28, 2004–December 15, 2011)
Hostilities between the US and Iraq ended on June 28, 2004 when the CPA handed over Iraqi sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim government as mandated by UN Resolution 1546. Throughout the Iraq War, US-led Coalition troops were operating in the country with the consent of the new legitimate government of Iraq. Therefore, the war in Iraq after June 28, 2004 became a non-international armed conflict (NIAC), which fell under the laws of war applicable to NIAC, including Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions.
June 28, 2004–December 31, 2004
Through July and August, a series of skirmishes in and around Najaf culminated with the Imman Ali Mosque itself under siege, only to have a peace deal brokered by al-Sistani in late August.
The Allawi government, with significant numbers of holdovers from the Coalition Provisional Authority, began to engage in attempts to secure control of the oil infrastructure, the source of Iraq's foreign currency, and control of the major cities of Iraq. The continuing insurgencies, poor state of the Iraqi Army, disorganized condition of police and security forces, as well as the lack of revenue hampered their efforts to assert control. In addition, both former Ba'athist elements and militant Shia groups engaged in sabotage, terrorism, open rebellion, and establishing their own security zones in all or part of a dozen cities. The Allawi government vowed to crush resistance, using US troops, but at the same time negotiated with Muqtada al-Sadr.
Offensives and counteroffensives
Beginning 8 November, American and Iraqi forces invaded the militant stronghold of Fallujah in
Another offensive was launched by insurgents during the month of November in Mosul. US forces backed by peshmerga fighters launched a counteroffensive which resulted in the Battle of Mosul (2004). The fighting in Mosul occurred concurrently with the fighting in Fallujah and attributed to the high number of American casualties taken that month.
In December, 14 American soldiers were killed and over a hundred injured when an explosion struck an open-tent mess hall in Mosul, where President Bush had spent Thanksgiving with troops the year before. The explosion is believed to have come from a suicide bomber.
After a review of the military strategy in the end of 2004, then commanding general of the
2005
Iraqi elections and aftermath
On 30 January, an
Hopes for a quick end to an insurgency and a withdrawal of US troops were dashed at the advent of May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion of US forces in March and April 2003. Suicide bombers, believed to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gatherings or civilian concentrations mainly of Shias. As a result, over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79 US soldiers.
During early and mid-May, the US also launched
The Marines succeeded, recapturing the whole region and even fighting insurgents all the way to the Syrian border, where they were forced to stop (Syrian residents living near the border heard the American bombs very clearly during the operation). The vast majority of these armed and trained insurgents quickly dispersed before the US could bring the full force of its firepower on them, as it did in Fallujah.
Announcements and renewed fighting
On 14 August 2005 the
On 22 September 2005,
Constitutional ratification and elections
The National Assembly elected in January had drafted a new constitution to be ratified in a national referendum on 15 October 2005. For ratification, the constitution required a majority of national vote, and could be blocked by a two-thirds "no" vote in each of at least three of the 18 governorates. In the actual vote, 79% of the voters voted in favor, and there was a two-thirds "no" vote in only two governorates, both predominantly Sunni. The new Constitution of Iraq was ratified and took effect. Sunni turnout was substantially heavier than for the January elections, but insufficient to block ratification.
Elections for a new Iraqi National Assembly were held under the new constitution on 15 December 2005. This election used a proportional system, with approximately 25% of the seats required to be filled by women. After the election, a coalition government was formed under the leadership of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, with Jalal Talabani as president.
2006
The beginning of that year was marked by government creation talks and continuous anti-coalition and attacks on mainly Shia civilians.
Al-Askari shrine bombing and Sunni-Shia fighting
- See Al Askari Mosque bombing and Iraqi civil war (2006–2008)
On 22 February 2006. bombs exploded at the
On 2 March the director of the Baghdad morgue fled Iraq explaining,
"7,000 people have been killed by death squads in recent months."
Insurgencies, frequent terrorist attacks and
In early 2006, a handful of high-ranking retired generals began to demand Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld's resignation due in part to the aforementioned chaos that apparently resulted from his management of the war.
British hand Muthanna province to Iraqis
On 12 July 2006, Iraq took full control of the
Forward Operating Base Courage handed over to Nineveh province government
A former presidential compound of Saddam Hussein, dubbed Forward Operating Base Courage by
British troops leave Camp Abu Naji
On 24 August 2006, Maj Charlie Burbridge, a British military spokesman, said the last of 1,200 British troops left
that British troops leaving the base were preparing to head deep into the marshlands along the Iranian border, stating "We are repositioning our forces to focus on border areas and deal with reports of smuggling of weapons and improvised explosive devices from across the border."The base had been a target for frequent mortar and rocket barrages since being set up in 2003, but Burbridge dismissed suggestions the British had been forced out of Amara while acknowledging the attacks had been one reason for the decision to withdraw, the second being that a static base did not fit with the new operation. "Abu Naji was a bulls-eye in the middle of a dartboard. The attacks were a nuisance and were a contributing factor in our planning", to quit the base, he said, adding "By no longer presenting a static target, we reduce the ability of the militias to strike us ... We understand the militias in Maysan province are using this as an example that we have been pushed out of Abu Naji, but that is not true. It was very rare for us to take casualties." Burbridge stated that Iraqi security forces would now be responsible for day-to-day security in Maysan but stressed that the British had not yet handed over complete control to them.
The Iraqi troops asked the province's governor for permission to return fire, a decision the British military highlighted as evidence of the security force's training. "It demonstrated that they understand the importance of civilian primacy, that the government – and not the military – is in charge", Burbridge said in a phone interview with The Washington Post. Injuries were reported on both sides, but no one was killed. Burbridge attributed the looting to economic factors rather than malice, stating "The people of Amarah – many of whom are extremely poor – saw what they believed to be a bit of an Aladdin's cave inside." Some residents of Amarah, however, told the Post that antipathy toward the occupation was strong. "The looters stole everything – even the bricks ... They almost leveled the whole base to the ground", said 20-year-old student at Maysan University Ahmed Mohammed Abdul Latief.[36][37][38]
Situation in and around Baghdad
On 28 August 2006, one US general said violence in Baghdad had fallen by nearly a half since July, although he acknowledged a spike in bombings in the past 48 hours. "Insurgents and terrorists are hitting back in an attempt to offset the success of the Iraqi government and its security forces", Maj Gen William Caldwell told reporters. After meeting
The American military command acknowledged in the week of 16 October 2006 that it was considering an overhaul of its latest security plan for Baghdad, where three months of intensive American-led sweeps had failed to curb violence by
Numerous car and roadside bombs rocked the capital 9 November 2006 morning: In the Karrada district, a car bomb killed six and wounded 28 others. Another car bomb killed seven and wounded another 27 in the northern Qahira neighborhood. In South Baghdad, a mortar then a suicide car bomber killed seven and wounded 27 others near the Mishin bazaar. Near the college of Fine Arts in north-central Baghdad, a car bomb targeting an Iraqi patrol killed three and wounded six others. Two policemen were injured when they tried to dismantle a car bomb in the Zayouna district. A car bomb on Palestine Street in northeastern Baghdad meant for an Iraqi patrol killed one soldier but also wounded four civilians. Yet another car bomb in southern Baghdad wounded three people. And another car bomb near a passport services building in a northern neighborhood killed 2 people and wounded 7 others.
A roadside bomb in central Baghdad killed two and wounded 26 others. A police patrol was blasted by a roadside bomb near a petrol station; four were killed in the explosion. Another four people were wounded in the New Baghdad neighborhood by yet another roadside bomb. A bomb hidden in a sack exploded in Tayern square killing three and wounding 19. Another bomb in the Doura neighborhood killed one and wounded three. Mortars fell in Kadmiyah killing one woman and injuring eight people, and in Bayaladat where four were wounded.
Also in the capital, a group of laborers were kidnapped in the morning of 9 November 2006; five bodies were recovered later in the Doura neighborhood, but at least one other body was found in Baghdad that day. Gunmen also killed a police colonel and his driver in the east of the city. And just outside town, police arrested two people in a raid and discovered one corpse.[41]
On 10 November, Iraqi police recovered 18 bullet-riddled bodies in various neighborhoods around the capital which the police were unable to identify. The following day, two bombs planted in an outdoor market in central Baghdad exploded around noon, killing six and wounded 32 people. A car bomb and a roadside bomb were detonated five minutes apart in the market, which is in an area close to Baghdad's main commercial center. The US military said it has put up a $50,000 reward for anyone who helps find an American soldier kidnapped in Baghdad. The 42-year-old Army Reserve specialist,
A suicide bomber killed 40 Iraqis and wounded 70 on 12 November 2006 morning outside the national police headquarters' recruitment center in western Baghdad, an emergency police official said. They were among dozens of men waiting to join the police force in the Qadessiya district when a suicide bomber detonated an explosives belt. In central Baghdad, a car bomb and roadside bomb killed four Iraqi civilians and wounded 10 near the Interior Ministry complex. And in the Karrada district of central Baghdad, one Iraqi was killed and five were wounded when a car bomb exploded near an outdoor market 12 November 2006 morning. Gunmen shot dead an Iraqi officer with the new Iraqi intelligence system as he was walking towards his parked car in the southwestern Baghdad neighborhood of Bayaa. Two civilians were killed and four more were wounded when a roadside bomb hit a car in the eastern Baghdad neighborhood of Zayuna.[42]
Violent incidents in other cities
9 November 2006.[41]
- Suwayrah: Four bodies were recovered from the Tigris River. Three of them were in police uniforms.
- Amarah: A roadside bomb killed one and wounded three others in Amarah. Gunmen also shot dead a suspected former member of the Fedayeen paramilitary.
- Muqdadiyah: Gunmen stormed a primary school and killed three: a guard, a policeman and a student.
- Tal Afar: A roadside bomb in Tal Afar killed four, including a policeman, and wounded eight other people. Two policemen were killed and four civilians were injured when a rocket landed in a residential neighborhood.
- Mosul: Six people were shot dead, including one policeman.
- Latifiya: Four bodies, bound and gagged, were discovered.
- Baqubah: Eight people were killed in different incidents.
11 November 2006.[43]
- Latifiya: Gunmen killed a truck driver and kidnapped 11 Iraqis after stopping four vehicles at a fake checkpoint south of the capital. At the fake checkpoint in Latifiya, about 25 miles (40 km) south of Baghdad, gunmen took the four vehicles—three minibuses and a truck—along with the kidnapped Iraqis. The Iraqis—11 men and three women—were driving from Diwaniya to Baghdad for shopping when they were stopped. The gunmen left the three women and kidnapped the 11 men, the official said.
- Baqubah: North of the capital near Baquba, a suicide car bomb explosion killed two people at the main gate of a police station in Zaghanya town.
Al-Qaeda
Although Saddam Hussein was accused of having links to Al-Qaeda members, only a few Al-Qaeda members were found hiding in Iraq before the invasion, and all were of lower standings.
On 3 September 2006, Iraq says it has arrested the country's second most senior figure in Al-Qaeda, "severely wounding" an organization the US military says is spreading sectarian violence that could bring civil war. The National Security Adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie summoned reporters to a hastily arranged news conference to announce that al Qaeda leader Hamid Juma Faris al-Suaidi had been seized some days ago. Hitherto little heard of, and also known as Abu Humam or Abu Rana, Suaidi was captured hiding in a building with a group of followers. "Al-Qaeda in Iraq is severely wounded", Rubaie said. He said Suaidi had been involved in ordering the bombing of the Shi'ite shrine in Samarra in February 2006 that unleashed the wave of tit-for-tat killings now threatening civil war. Iraqi officials blame Al-Qaeda for the attack. The group denies it. Rubaie did not give Suaidi's nationality. He said he had been tracked to the same area north of Baghdad where US forces killed Al-Qaeda's leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi in June 2006. "He was hiding in a building used by families. He wanted to use children and women as human shields", Rubaie said. Little is publicly known about Suaidi. Rubaie called him the deputy of Abu Ayyub al-Masri, a shadowy figure, probably Egyptian, who took over the Sunni Islamist group from Zarqawi.[44]
The US military says Al-Qaeda is a "prime instigator" of the violence between Iraq's
A handover ceremony on 2 September 2006 was postponed at the last minute, first to 3 September 2006, then indefinitely, after a dispute emerged between the government and
Abu Ghraib
On 2 September 2006, the
Iraqi government takes control of the 8th Iraqi Army Division
On 7 September 2006, Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki signed a document taking control of Iraq's small naval and air forces and the 8th Iraqi Army Division, based in the south. At a ceremony marking the occasion, Gen George Casey, the top US commander in Iraq stated "From today forward, the Iraqi military responsibilities will be increasingly conceived and led by Iraqis." Previously, the US-led Multi-National Force – Iraq, commanded by Casey, gave orders to the Iraqi armed forces through a joint American-Iraqi headquarters and chain of command. After the handover, the chain of command flows directly from the prime minister in his role as Iraqi commander in chief, through his Defense Ministry to the Iraqi Joint Forces Command. From there, the orders go to Iraqi units on the ground. The other nine Iraqi division remained under US command, with authority gradually being transferred. US military officials said there was no specific timetable for the transition.[46]
Anbar province reported as politically "lost" to US and Iraqi government
On 11 September 2006, it transpired that Colonel Peter Devlin, chief of intelligence for the Marine Corps in Iraq, had filed a secret report, described by those who have seen it as saying that the US and the Iraqi government have been defeated politically in Anbar province. According to The Washington Post, an unnamed Defense Department source described Devlin as saying "there are no functioning Iraqi government institutions in Anbar, leaving a vacuum that has been filled by the insurgent group al-Qaeda in Iraq, which has become the province's most significant political force." The Post said that Devlin is a very experienced intelligence officer whose report was being taken seriously.[47]
The next day, Major General Richard Zilmer, commander of the Marines in Iraq, stated: "We are winning this war... I have never heard any discussion about the war being lost before this weekend."[48]
In the fall of 2006 several Iraqi tribes near Ramadi led by
Two more provinces were transferred to
On 21 September 2006, Italian troops handed security control of the
On 20 December 2006, US forces handed over control of the southern province of Najaf to Iraqi security forces.[50]
2007
In January 2007 US President George W. Bush announced a
In May 2007, Iraq's Parliament called on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal[52] and US coalition partners such as the UK and Denmark began withdrawing their forces from the country.[53][54] During the summer the US turned its attention to eastern Anbar and secured the cities of Fallujah and Al-Karmah.
Celebrating victory, President George W. Bush flew to Anbar in August 2007 to congratulate Sheik Sattar and other leading tribal figures.
2008
Iraqi forces begin process of arming with advanced US weapon systems
Iraq became one of the top current purchasers of US military equipment with their army trading its AK-47 assault rifles for the more accurate US M16 and M4 rifles, among other equipment.[55]
Iraq sought 36
In 2008 Iraq accounted for more than $12.5 billion of the $34 billion US weapon sales to foreign countries (not including the potential F-16 fighter planes).[57]
2009
2010
Final departure of US combat troops
On 18 August 2010 the final US combat troops were reported to have crossed the border into Kuwait, when a last convoy of the Army's 4th Stryker Brigade Combat Team departed Iraq. A spokesman for the US State Department, P. J. Crowley, was quoted by news media as saying the departure was "a historic moment," but noted that the US presence in Iraq would continue. The pullout of combat forces was nearly two weeks ahead of the announced deadline of 31 August.
In a released statement, US President Obama said of the withdrawn soldiers, "I hope you'll join me in thanking them, and all of our troops and military families, for their service." He noted that the event was a "milestone in the Iraq war."[60]
The closure of
Participating nations
As of May 2011, the United States was the only country with military forces stationed in Iraq. Other nations also present but under the United Nations banner.[61]
As of September 2006, there were an estimated 145,000 US troops in Iraq.[62] There are also approximately 20,000 private security contractors of different nationalities under various employers.
Casualties
Iraqi councils and authorities
On 11 October 2002, President Bush's senior adviser on the Middle East, Zalmay Khalilzad, released US government plans to establish an American-led military administration in Iraq, as in post-war Germany and Japan, which could last for several years after the fall of Saddam.[63] In the run-up to the invasion, the US promised a speedy transition to a democratic government, as well as the creation of an Iraqi constitution, and the active role of Iraqis in the establishment of an interim authority and new government. US officials continue to emphasize that the invasion was not about long-term occupation, but about liberation.
In November 2003, Paul Bremer announced the plan to hand over limited sovereignty to the Iraqi governing council by 30 June 2004. A draft constitution was written and approved by the Iraqi Governing Council in March 2004. The United States has stated its plans to enter into what it calls a security agreement with the new Iraqi government and maintain military authority until a new Iraqi army is established. The Bush administration remained committed to this date despite the unstable security situation. The interim Iraqi government was named in May 2004, at which point the Iraqi Governing Council was dissolved, though there was heavy overlap between the two governing bodies.
The US-led Coalition Provisional Authority, for administrative purposes, divided Iraq into four security zones (see map): a North zone in the Mosul – Kirkuk region, a Central zone in the Baghdad – Tikrit region, a Southern Central zone in the Karbala region and a South zone in the Basra region. The northern and central zones were garrisoned by US troops, while the Southern Central zone was garrisoned by a Multi-National Division under Polish command and the South zone was garrisoned by a Multi-National Division under British command.[64]
In the early months of the occupation, looting and vandalism slowed the restoration of basic services such as water, electricity, and sanitation. By Spring 2004, these services were mostly restored to pre-war levels. Uneven power distribution remained a problem through 2004, with the Baghdad area continuing to have periodic blackouts.[65] On 28 July 2005, Iraq's Electricity Minister announced that Iraq's electricity supply had risen to above pre-war levels.[66]
Numerous allegations were made of human rights violations by the occupying forces in post-invasion Iraq. One of the most significant of these was the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal, where 11 American soldiers from the 372nd Military Police Company were convicted in 2005 for a series of war crimes over the mistreatment of Iraqi prisoners. The Bush administration denied that the abuses were indicative of US military policy in Iraq.[67][68]
Former Ba'ath Party members and military officers who have no criminal past or human rights abuses have been allowed to return to government positions.[69]
Reconstruction
For the reconstruction, contracts were awarded to private companies. Initially companies from countries that had opposed the war were excluded from these contracts, but this decision was reversed due to protests.
Some also argue that foreign contractors are doing work which could be done by unemployed Iraqis, which might be a factor fueling resentment of the occupation.
On 14 August 2005, a
A report of the United States
In April 2007, the New York Times reported that US federal oversight inspectors found that "in a sampling of eight projects that the United States had declared successes, seven were no longer operating as designed because of plumbing and electrical failures, lack of proper maintenance, apparent looting, and expensive equipment that lay idle. The United States has sometimes admitted ... that some of its reconstruction projects have been abandoned, delayed, or poorly constructed. But this is the first time inspectors have found that projects officially declared as successes—in some cases, as little as six months before the latest inspections—were no longer working properly."[80]
In 2012, Iraq bought electricity from the United Arab Emirates, as Iraqis continued to endure electricity cuts of up to twenty hours a day during peak periods of demand,[81] while the country's university system was one of the worst in the Middle East.[82] June saw Prince Abdul Ilah Al Qasim comment that Iraqi oil production was at its highest in twenty years. Abdul Ilah by telephone from Baghdad said that the "oil production has exceeded 3.07 million barrels this month, compared with 2.92 million barrels for the month of May which was announced in the monthly report of OPEC".[83]
Civilian government
The establishment of a new civilian government of Iraq was complicated by religious and political divisions between the majority
On 16 May 2003, US officials abandoned the plan to cede authority to a democratically chosen interim civilian Iraqi government (similar to what had happened in Afghanistan following the 2001 US invasion) and presented a resolution to the UN to give the United States and the United Kingdom broad power and to lift economic sanctions on Iraq, allowing the occupying countries authority to use oil resources to pay for rebuilding the country. Passage of the resolution allowed them to appoint an interim government by themselves.
On 13 July 2003, an Iraqi Governing Council was appointed by Coalition Provisional Authority Administrator Paul Bremer.
United Nations resolutions
On 22 May 2003, the
The resolution also created the
On 14 August 2003, the Security Council voted 14–0 to "welcome" the creation of the Iraqi Governing Council. Resolution 1500 stopped short of formally recognizing the governing council as Iraq's legitimate governing body but called it an "important step" towards creating a sovereign government.
Elections
For several months the United States maintained that it intended to convene a constitutional convention, composed of influential Iraqis. However, European demands for an early election and
In the early months of the occupation, new officials were appointed to several local and regional positions (e.g., mayors, governors, local councils). The officials were chosen from a select group of individuals (including ex-Ba'ath party officials) in an attempt to speed the return to normality and to avoid the election of people opposed to the Coalition presence. Certain religious clerics and other officials were considered to be overly radical or dangerous. On occasion the appointed officials were found to behave less than admirably. On 30 June 2003, the appointed mayor of Najaf was arrested on charges of corruption.
By February 2004, democratic elections, under the supervision of the CPA, had already been held at the municipal and city level in some of the southern and northern provinces.[85]
On 15 November, the Iraqi Governing Council announced that a transitional government would take over in June from the US-led powers, and that an elected government would follow by the end of 2005 once a constitution had been drafted and ratified. The transitional government would be selected in June 2004 by a transitional council formed in May 2004.
The Governing Council revealed the timetable after the United States government, in reaction to terrorist and
In March 2004, an interim constitution was created, called the
The elected assembly drafted a new
Sovereignty for Iraq
In a 1 June 2004, press conference, President Bush said that he was working with various world leaders to create a
On 28 June 2004, the occupation was nominally ended by the CPA, which transferred limited power to a new Iraqi government led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. The
A further milestone in sovereignty was achieved with the creation of a democratically elected administration on 6 April 2005 including Prime Minister
Under
Provincial Iraqi control
The objective of the
Provinces are subject to regular assessment by the Iraqi government and the Coalition; when a province appears to be ready, a recommendation is made to the Iraqi Ministerial Committee for National Security, with the Prime Minister making the final decision.
Provinces under Iraqi Control
As of October 2008, thirteen provinces had successfully completed transition to provincial Iraqi control:
Muthanna was the first, on 13 July 2006, when Australian, Japanese and British forces from
Dhi Qar, also within the area of responsibility of the British-led MND-SE and the responsibility of the Italian and Romanian brigade, was handed over on 21 September 2006. .[88] Australian troops in MND-SE remained available to provide security support to the Iraqis in both Muthanna and Dhi Qar, should they request it.
Najaf, which had been garrisoned by first Polish, then US forces, was handed over on 20 December 2006.[89]
In April 2007, Maysan Governorate became the fourth to transition to provincial Iraqi control. [90]
On 30 May 2007, the three provinces making up the
In October 2007, Karbala became the eighth province to transfer to provincial Iraqi control. The transfer of Basra in December 2007 marked the half-way point in transferring all provincial security over to Iraqi security forces.[92]
In July 2008 the tenth province, Al-Qādisiyyah, also transferred to Iraqi control.[92]
On 1 September 2008, in the wake of the decreasing levels of violence, the US Army transferred control of the expansive
In October 2008, Babil province became the twelfth province to return to Iraqi control,[93] whilst Wasit was transferred later in the month, making it the thirteenth province to be transferred.[94]
Transition after Security Agreement signed
As of 31 December 2008, 13 of Iraq's 18 provinces had successfully transitioned to Provincial Iraqi Control (PIC).
Iraqi insurgency
After the 2003 invasion, an insurgency developed against Coalition forces during as part of the
In February 2006, a sectarian civil war broke out in Iraq, leading to insurgents to direct many of their attacks against the police and armed forces of the Iraqi government. The attacks continued during the transitional reconstruction of Iraq, as the Iraqi government attempted to establish its authority throughout the country.[97][98]
Though the civil war (and the accompanying sectarian violence) ended in mid-2008, the insurgency continued after the withdrawal of US forces from Iraq in 2001, and in 2012 a renewed wave of sectarian and anti-government insurgency swept Iraq, causing thousands of casualties. Increasing violence led to another outbreak of war in Iraq in 2013, lasting until 2017.[99]
Guerrilla war
In late June 2003 there was some public debate in the US as to whether the insurgency could be characterized as a guerrilla war. On 17 June, Army Gen. John P. Abizaid said that forces in Iraq were "conducting what I would describe as a classical guerrilla-type campaign against us. It's low-intensity conflict in our doctrinal terms, but it's war however you describe it." In a statement to Congress on 18 June, Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said "There's a guerrilla war there but we can win it."
Sabotage
Sabotage of
Iraqi analysts have argued that the administration's measures are misleading because the war began in 2003, which pushed production numbers lower than they normally would have been.
"They are way off of their original projections" for where oil production would be now, said Rick Barton, an expert on Iraqi reconstruction at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington. "It's basically gone nowhere in the entire time we've been there. Of course, they haven't been able to protect the pipelines. You just can't be rebuilding a country during an active war."[citation needed][100]
Fallujah
The Fallujah offensive
The ensuing firefight resulted in a large number of casualties. Dozens of Marines were killed and injured. Two hundred and seventy-one members of the non-coalition forces were killed and 793 injured, according to official counts for the period of 5 April through 22 April. Conflicting reports leave it unclear how many of the dead and injured were rebel fighters or women and children.[101][102][103] There were also reports of ambulances and aid convoys being used by the insurgents to smuggle weapons and fighters into the city.[104] Coalition officials said that the insurgents used mosques and schools as command posts and weapon-storage facilities. A suicide-bomb-vest factory was discovered by Marines.[105]
After several failed attempts at ceasefires, the US backed out of the city. A Marine commander stated "We don't want to turn Fallujah into Dresden". The US handed authority of the city over to a former Iraqi general who had served under Saddam Hussein, and whose fighters the US acknowledges may include former members of insurgency.
Afterwards, the city was referred to as "free rebel town"; banners in the city streets proclaimed victory over the United States, and some of its mosques praised the Iraqi insurgency. The general, Muhammed Latif, told Reuters, "I want the American soldier to return to his camp. What I want more is that he returns to the United States."[106]
US marines encircled Fallujah with an earth wall, trying to control access to the city, allowing only women and children to leave the city. On 19 June 2004, twenty two Iraqis, among them women and children, were killed in a US air strike on a residential neighborhood.
Muqtada al-Sadr
On 4 April 2004, coalition forces closed
The coalition responded by arresting one of al-Sadr's closest aides, leading to al-Sadr calling on his followers to rise up. The next days fighting erupted in many cities in southern Iraq, including
During the first few days of the uprising al-Sadr stayed in
Initially hopeful that al-Sistani would force al-Sadr to capitulate, the coalition was disappointed when, while he called for all sides to show restraint, he focused instead on condemning coalition activities in Fallujah. In mid-May 2004, a US lead force began pushing into Najaf. In the process, they invaded several mosques to seize weaponry, and there were reports of damage to some of Shia Islam's holiest shrines. US forces, using their superior firepower and air support, inflicted a steady stream of al-Mahdi army casualties; al-Sadr and hospital officials disputed the numbers, and both claimed that many of them were civilians. The al-Mahdi were only able to inflict few American casualties, but on 17 May, it was reported that the Al-Madhi army drove Italian troops from their base in Nasiriyah.[108] Ten Italians were wounded, along with 20 al-Mahdi army fighters wounded and two killed, in the assault. The base was peacefully retaken the next day in a negotiated settlement with local clan leaders.
While the Alliance continually insisted that he had little support, and there were limited clashes with the smaller SCIRI, he was seldom condemned by his more senior clerics. Islamic courts expanded their influence in areas he controlled. The
In August 2004, al-Sadr attempted a second rebellion, and his al-Mahdi army again incited violence, especially in the
By August 2005, al-Sadr had adopted a more conciliatory tone, along with a much lower profile, saying "I call upon all the believers to save the blood of the Muslims and to return to their homes" after an outbreak of violence between some of his followers and those of Abdul Aziz al-Hakim.[111]
Hostages
After the fall of the Ba'ath-regime, people with varying agendas have taken foreign and Iraqi hostages, including citizens of both countries that supported and opposed the invasion. This includes citizens of Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, the Czech Republic, France, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Germany, Japan, Jordan, Nepal, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, South Korea, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.
The hostage-taking appears to be uncoordinated, with different groups making various demands. Some hostages are released whilst others are killed, sometimes by beheading. Several kidnappings have been claimed by the
While some hostagetaking seems to be politically motivated, a large number of hostages are taken by criminals as a means of obtaining cash. Iraqis presumed to have high incomes have especially been targeted.
On the evening of 4 March 2005, the car leading
Fall-out
As a result of the uprisings
Iraq Study Group Report
At a news conference with the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in Washington on 6 December 2006, President George W. Bush commented the Iraq Study Group's bipartisan report assessing the current situation of the US-led Iraq War and making policy recommendations. President Bush admitted for the first time that a "new approach" is needed in Iraq, that the situation in Iraq is "bad there" and that the task ahead was "daunting".[114] President Bush said he would not accept every recommendation by the ISG panel but promised that he would take the report seriously.[115]
Iraq Coalition members departures
All foreign troops have withdrawn from Iraq.
American withdrawal
On 18 August 2010 the 4th Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, the last US combat brigade withdrew from Iraq, ending the US combat mission in Iraq. 52,600 US military personnel remained in Iraq to take on an advisory role.[116]
On 19 August 2010, US President Barack Obama announced that all US combat operations would end on 31 August. 50,000 troops would stay in an advise-and-assist role. The full withdrawal was in December 2011. Between 15 and 18 December, the last troops left.
US military patrolling
During the "post-war" Iraq occupation, occupying forces have turned their attention to enforcing order through patrolling. These patrols faced insurgents who conduct ambushes using assault rifles, rocket propelled grenades, and carefully placed and timed explosives. The patrols require armored vehicles capable of stopping at least small arms fire of 7.62 mm machine gun rounds along with mandatory external weapons platforms and tracking equipment. Experience is also key in detecting any potentially threatening, out of place car, box or person while following the rules of engagement that dictate a passive-but-ready posture. Patrolling soldiers spend nearly eight hours a day in sector and accrue nearly 30 patrols per month.
US permanent facilities
In October 2004, Iraq's interim government transferred to US ownership 104 acres (0.42 km2) of land beside the Tigris River in Baghdad for construction of a
Besides the embassy complex, four "super bases" are being built for permanent deployment. One would be adjacent to Baghdad, two would be close to the southern and northern oil fields and the fourth would be in the west towards Syria.[118]
The US is in the process of building 14 bases known as enduring bases. Four are unknown as to name and location. The other ten are: Green Zone in Baghdad, Camp Anaconda at Balad Airbase, Camp Taji in Taji, Camp Falcon-Al-Sarq in Baghdad, Post Freedom in Mosul, Camp Victory-Al Nasr at Baghdad Airfield, Camp Marez at Mosul Airfield, Camp Renegade in Kirkuk, Camp Speicher in Tikrit and Camp Fallujuh.[119][120]
Cultural dimensions
As cultural scientist Roland Benedikter poses in his book on Sustainable Democratization of Iraq[121] and in a series of essays,[122] one main cause of the ongoing problems of pacification seems to consist in the fact that the socio-cultural dimensions of sustainability, including questions of ethnicity, religion and minority issues, have not been included appropriately in the overall democratization strategies so far.
See also
- Archaeological looting in Iraq: Since the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime, looters have descended upon many archaeological sites, and have begun destroying them and looting artifacts to an alarming degree.
- Criticism of the Iraq War: A list of common criticisms of the 2003 invasion and subsequent military occupation of Iraq.
- Hillbilly armor: a US military slang term coined during the occupation to refer to the improvised vehicle armor being used by some US troops.
- Human rights in post-invasion Iraq: Various parties expressed concern about the state of human rights in Iraq after the 2003 occupation of Iraq.
- Iraq and weapons of mass destruction: The Iraqi government's use, possession, and alleged intention of acquiring more types of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) during the reign of Saddam Hussein.
- United Nations Security Council and the Iraq War: Actions associated with the Gulf War in 1991 and UN Security Council Resolution 1441 in late 2002–2003 with at least 14 other resolutions and 30 statements between those two events.
- Iraq War order of battle: Current list of US and allied military formations and units involved in Iraq.
- Ibn Sina Hospital
- Iraq disarmament crisis: Issue of Iraq's disarmament reached a crisis in 2002–2003, after demands of the complete end to Iraqi production and use of weapons of mass destruction and that Iraq comply with UN Resolutions requiring UN inspectors unfettered access to areas those inspectors thought might have weapons production facilities.
- Iraq Survey Group: A fact-finding mission sent by the coalition after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq to find weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs developed by Iraq under the regime of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
- Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group: Japanese government's deployment of troops to Iraq.
- Dover test: Informal test and a journalistic phrase to describe whether the general population is supporting a military action by the public reaction to returning war casualties.
- Timeline of the Iraq War: Timeline of events during Multinational force's occupation of Iraq, following 2003 invasion of Iraq, and relevant quotations about nature of occupation from officials
- Iraq War order of battle 2009: Overview of coalition forces in Iraq.
- War on Terror(in US foreign policy circles, the global war on terrorism or GWOT) is a campaign by the United States and some of its allies to rid the world of terrorist groups and to end state sponsorship of terrorism.
- 256th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States)
Post World War II occupations:
- Occupied Japan: The post World War II US occupation of Japan 1945–1952
- United States Army Military Government in Korea: US military administered southern Korea from 1945 to 1948
- Morgenthau Plan: The post World War II US occupation of part of Germany 1945–1955 (Germany was not fully sovereign until 1991)
- History of Germany since 1945
- GARIOA Government And Relief in Occupied Areas of Europe
- Marshall Plan
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After the pictures were published the Bush administration was quick to condemn the abuse and accuse the low ranking soldiers who featured in the pictures. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld described the abuse at Abu Ghraib as an isolated case and President Bush talked about: 'disgraceful conduct by a few American troops who dishonoured our country and disregarded our values.' The abuse however did not constitute isolated cases but represented further proof of a widespread pattern.
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Further reading
- Petersen, Roger D. (2024). Death, Dominance, and State-Building: The US in Iraq and the Future of American Military Intervention. Oxford University Press.
- "Iraq Coalition Casualty Count". Archived from the original on 28 June 2005. Retrieved 29 June 2005.
- "Non-US Forces in Iraq". GlobalSecurity.org. 15 March 2005.
- Iraq Body Count (2005). "A Dossier of Civilian Casualties in Iraq 2003–2005" (PDF). Retrieved 30 December 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - Gillan, AudreyMaggie (19 January 2005). "Shocking images revealed at Britain's 'Abu Ghraib trial'". The Guardian. London.
- "In Pictures: Alleged prisoner abuse near Basra". The Guardian. London. 19 January 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- "Seven soldiers charged with Iraqi's murder". The Guardian. London. 3 February 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- "Iraq timeline: 1 February 2004 to 31 December 2004". The Guardian. London. January 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- Carroll, Rory (4 February 2005). "Meet the men who Britain and the US hope will take over the battle against Iraqi insurgents – if they live long enough". The Guardian. London.
- Cordesman, Anthony (2004). "US Policy in Iraq: A "Realist" Approach to its Challenges and Opportunities".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq by Ray Salvatore Jennings May 2003 Peceworks No. 49 United States Institute of Peace
- Lyal S. Sunga, "Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq", in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell, Cambridge University Press 2007.
- Legal status
- Lyal S. Sunga, "Can International Humanitarian Law Play an Effective Role in Occupied Iraq?", 3 Indian Society of International Law Yearbook of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law (2003) 1–21.
- Management of the Iraq Reconstruction Program
- "UN Criticizes Iraq Occupation Oil Sales". New York Times, Cash Flow, 14 December 2004.
External links
- Information on the US efforts to rebuild Iraq, with focus on the PRT program
- Back from Iraq: The Veterans' Stories Project
- Searchable timeline of Iraq occupation
- The end of Saddam Hussein Warning: Graphic Execution video
- The end of Saddam Hussein (video 2 January 8/07)- Warning: Mature content.
- About.com's An American Palace in Iraq and Four Permanent US Bases Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- www.iraqanalysis.org – Information source listings and analysis on post-invasion Iraq
- Iraq Body Count – Independent database listing civilians killed in the Iraq war and occupation
- "Latest analysis on Iraq". Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 7 November 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - FSB Iraq FrogStyleBiscuit's Iraq News and Analysis
- Iraq News Archive The White House
- Senator Byrd, Robert A Call for an Exit Door from Iraq 7 April 2004, Common Dreams News Center
- Is Iraq Another 'Vietnam'? Monthly Review, volume 56, issue 2, June 2004
- US/Iraq News Mission and Justice
- Jason Vest, "Willful Ignorance", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July/August 2005. Discusses US approach to counterinsurgency in Iraq.
- Sheehan-Miles, Charles Iraq in Transition: An Examination of Iraqi resistance, terrorism, insurgency and organized crime 2005
- Americans are Losing the Victory in Europe, and Grim Europe Faces Winter of Misery Life, 7 January 1946
- Oral History Interview with General William H. Draper Jr. Chief, Economics Division, Control Council for Germany, 1945–46
- Oral History Interview with General Lucius D. Clay Deputy military governor, Germany (US) 1946; commander in chief, US Forces in Europe and military governor, US Zone, Germany, 1947–49
- MarchofWar.com – Up-to-date Iraq war clock, war quotes and slogans, plus poll
- Interview with an American Contractor in Iraq
- A Policy for Germany
- Daoud al-Qaissi, Saddam's singer executed
- The World Monuments Fund's Iraq Cultural Heritage Conservation Initiative
- Did the United States Create Democracy in Germany? James L. Payne The Independent Review, Volume 11 Number 2, Fall 2006, Analysis of the axiom that democracy can be imposed
- Bibliography: Iraq Wars: Post 2003 by Edwin Moise
- Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Inside Iraq's Green Zone by Rajiv Chandrasekaran
- Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2003–2005 by Thomas E. Ricks