LGBT history

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Officers of the Night
)

LGBT rights movement, is adorned with rainbow pride flags.[1][2][3]

LGBT history dates back to the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations, involving the history of

) peoples and cultures around the world. What survives after many centuries of persecution—resulting in shame, suppression, and secrecy—has only in more recent decades been pursued and interwoven into more mainstream historical narratives.

In 1994, the annual observance of

Queen Beatrix signed a law making Netherlands the first country to legalize same-sex marriage.[7]

East Asia

China and Taiwan

Anal sex between two males being viewed. Qing dynasty.

Male homosexuality has been acknowledged in China since ancient times and was mentioned in many famous works of Chinese literature. Confucianism, being primarily a social and political philosophy, focused little on sexuality, whether homosexual or heterosexual. In contrast, the role of women is given little positive emphasis in Chinese history[citation needed], with records of lesbianism being especially rare. Still, there are also descriptions of lesbians in some history books.[8]: 174  It is believed homosexuality was popular in the Song, Ming and Qing dynasties.[9]

Chinese literature recorded multiple anecdotes of men engaging in homosexual relationships. In the story of the leftover

Duke Ling of Wei (衛靈公) in which Mizi Xia shared an especially delicious peach with his lover.[8]: 32  The story of the cut sleeve(断袖) recorded the Emperor Ai of Han sharing a bed with his lover, Dongxian (董賢); when Emperor Ai woke up later, he carefully cut off his sleeve, so as not to awake Dongxian, who had fallen asleep on top of it.[8]: 46  Scholar Pan Guangdan (潘光旦) came to the conclusion that many emperors in the Han dynasty had one or more male sex partners.[10]
However, except in unusual cases, such as Emperor Ai, the men named for their homosexual relationships in the official histories appear to have had active heterosexual lives as well.

With the rise of the Tang dynasty, China became increasingly influenced by the sexual morals of foreigners from Western and Central Asia, and female companions began to replace male companions in terms of power and familial standings.[8] The following Song dynasty was the last dynasty to include a chapter on male companions of the emperors in official documents.[8] During these dynasties, the general attitude toward homosexuality was still tolerant, but male lovers were increasingly seen as less legitimate compared to wives and men were usually expected to get married and continue the family line.[11]

During the

The Leveret Spirit
.

The Qing dynasty instituted the first law against consensual, non-monetized homosexuality in China. However, the punishment designated, which included a month in prison and 100 heavy blows, was actually the lightest punishment which existed in the Qing legal system.[8]: 144  In Dream of the Red Chamber, written during the Qing dynasty, instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexual people during the same period.[citation needed]

Significant efforts to suppress homosexuality in China began with the Self-Strengthening Movement, when homophobia was imported to China along with Western science and philosophy.[14]

In 2006, a shrine for the god of homosexual love,

marriage equality.[17]

Japan and Korea

'Bewhiskered Man Importuning a Wakashû' by Miyagawa Isshô, 1736 to 1744

Pre-Meiji Japan

Records of

Edo period. Historical practises of homosexuality is usually referred to in Japan as wakashudō (若衆道, lit.'way of the wakashū') and nanshoku (男色, lit.'male colors').[18] The institution of wakashudō in Japan is in many ways similar to pederasty in ancient Greece. Older men usually engaged in romantic and sexual relationships with younger men (the wakashū), usually in their teens.[19][20]

In the classic Japanese literature

shunga
are erotic pictures which include same-sex and opposite-sex love.

Post Meiji Japan

As Japan started it process of westernizing during the

Meiji era, homophobia was imported from western sources into Japan and animosity towards same-sex practices started growing.[20] In 1873 Ministry of Justice passed the keikan (鶏姦) code, a sodomy law criminalizing homosexual practices.[18]

Korea

Several members of Korea's nobility class and Buddhist monks have been known to declare their attraction to members of the same sex.[24] Some Korean emperors from a thousand years ago were also known for having male lovers.[25][26]

Southeast Asia and the Pacific

In

babaylan, whose social status were on par with the ruling nobility.[31][32] In Indonesia, the Serat Centhini records the prevalence of bisexuality and homosexuality in Javanese culture.[33] Homosexuality has also been recorded as part of numerous indigenous cultures throughout Indonesia, where each culture has specific terminologies for gender non-conforming peoples, many of whom had high roles in society.[34]

Under British colonial rule, the British imposed Section 377 or its equivalent over territories it colonized in Asia, including Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei. The law has left an anti-LGBT legacy in the countries that Britain colonized.[35][36] In Cambodia, homosexuality and same-sex marriages are openly supported by the monarchy, which has called on its government to legalize marriage equality.[37] In East Timor, Asia's youngest independent country since 2002, prime ministers and presidents have openly supported the LGBT community since 2017 when the nation celebrated its first pride march with religious and political leaders backing the movement.[38]

In some societies of Melanesia, especially in Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were, until the middle of the last century, an integral part of the culture.[39] Third gender concepts are prevalent in Polynesia, such as Samoa, where traditional same-sex marriage have been documented and trans people are widely accepted prior to colonization.[40][41] In Australia, non-binary concepts have been recorded in the culture of the indigenous Aboriginal peoples since pre-colonial times,[42] while homosexual terminologies are indigenous to Tiwi Islanders.[43] In New Zealand, Maori culture has records of homosexuality through their indigenous epics, where queer people are referred to as takatāpui.[44] In Hawaii, queer people, referred to as māhū, are widely accepted since pre-colonial times. Intimate same-sex relationships, referred as moe aikāne, are supported by indigenous rulers or chieftains without any form of stigma.[45] British colonialism and Christian churches have left an anti-LGBT legacy in parts of the Pacific due to the aggressive discriminatory impositions of Western conservatism on the region.[46]

South Asia

India

Throughout

Muslim rulers of South Asia are known to have had homosexual inclinations.[47][48][49]

Anal sex between men (Gouache 18th century)

In South Asia the Hijra are a caste of third gender or transgender people who live a feminine role. Hijra may be born male or intersex, and some may have been born female.[50]

Middle East and North Africa

Egypt

Ancient Egypt

A Ramesside period ostraca, depicting a pederastic couple (a boy and man) having sex together

The duo

Pepi II, but critics say that the story may have been written to tarnish what was considered to be a unloved monarch.[52][53]

Coptic Egypt

The sixth- or seventh-century Ashmolean Parchment AN 1981.940 provides the only example in Coptic language of a love spell between men. This vellum leaf contains an incantation by a man named Apapolo, the son of Noah, to compel the presence and love of another man Phello, the son of Maure. Phello will be restless until he finds Apapolo and satisfies the latter's desire.[54][55]

Medieval Egypt

Muslim conquest of Egypt. The native Egyptian population was tolerant of homosexual behaviors, but Islamic religious authority was discouraging of homosexual behaviors and non-traditional gender roles.[56] However, Islamic law tolerated a smaller subsection of homosexual behaviors of pederasty, as the attraction to feminine male youth was viewed as natural and compatible with traditional Muslim gender roles.[57][58][59]

Early modern Egypt

Siwa Oasis

The

better source needed
]

Walter Cline noted that, "all normal Siwan men and boys practice

better source needed
]

Assyria

The Middle

anal intercourse, practiced as part of a religious ritual, dated from the third millennium BCE and onwards.[67]

Furthermore, the article 'Homosexualität' in Reallexicon der Assyriologie states,

Homosexuality in itself is thus nowhere condemned as licentiousness, as immorality, as social disorder, or as transgressing any human or

prostitute, provided it was done without violence and without compulsion, and preferably as far as taking the passive role was concerned, with specialists. That there was nothing religiously amiss with homosexual love between men is seen by the fact that they prayed for divine blessing on it. It seems clear that the Mesopotamians saw nothing wrong in homosexual acts between consenting adults.[68][69][70]

Israel

The ancient

Deuteronomy 22:5, cross-dressing is condemned as "abominable".[75][76][page needed
]

Persia

In pre-modern Islam there was a "widespread conviction that beardless youths possessed a temptation to adult men as a whole, and not merely to a small minority of deviants."[77]

Muslim—often

Homoerotic themes were present in poetry and other literature written by some Muslims from the medieval period onward and which celebrated love between men. In fact these were more common than expressions of attraction to women.[78]

Turkey

The Ottoman Empire

In a world before sexual preferences defined identity, men who desired other men were not thought of as members of a biologically determined, distinctive subculture with a constant nature. Because men and women were not thought of as opposites, same-sex relationships were not considered to go against nature. (In fact, women were thought of as biologically imperfect men.)[79]

Pre-Columbian Americas

Berdache [sic
]. George Catlin (1796–1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC

Among

Two-Spirit".[82] In a traditional culture that holds these roles as sacred, these individuals are recognized early in life, raised in the appropriate manner, learning from the Elders the customs, spiritual, and social duties fulfilled by these people in the community.[80] While this new term has not been universally accepted—it has been criticized as a term of erasure by traditional communities who already have their own terms for the people being grouped under this new term, and by those who reject what they call the "western" binary implications, such as implying that Natives believe these individuals are "both male and female"[83]—it has generally received more acceptance and use than the anthropological term it replaced.[82][84][85]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Lesotho

Anthropologists Stephen Murray and Will Roscoe reported that women in Lesotho engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships", named motsoalle (lit.'Special Friend').[86][page needed] Often, a motsoalle relationship was acknowledged publicly with a ritual feast and with the community fully aware of the women's commitment to one another.[87] Motsoalle relationships commonly existed among school girls where it functioned like a type of "puppy love" or mentorship.[88]

However, different from the western notion of lesbianism, motsoalle relationships are not seen as an "alternative to heterosexual marriage".[89] Women in motsoalle relationships are still expected to "marry men and conform, or appear to conform, to gender expectations."[90] Motsoalle relationships are usually not seen as proper sexual and romantic relationship due to the Sesotho notion of sex, where an act is not considered a sex act if one partner was not male.[91]

As Lesotho became more modernized, those communities were exposed to Western culture and thus homophobia.[92] Anthropologist K. Limakatsuo Kendall hypothesizes that as Western ideas spread, the idea that women could be sexual with one another, coupled with homophobia, began to erase the motsoalle relationships.[92] By the 1980s, the ritual feasts that were once celebrated by the community for motsoalles had vanished.[93] Today, motsoalle relationships have largely disappeared.[94]

Azande

Among the

Azande warriors routinely took on boy-wives between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older husbands. The practice had died out by the early 20th century, after Europeans had gained control of African countries, but was recounted to Evans-Pritchard by the elders with whom he spoke.[95]

During the 1930s Evans-Pritchard recorded information about sexual relationships between women, based on reports from male Azande.[96]: 55  According to male Azande, women would take female lovers in order to seek out pleasure and that partners would penetrate each other using bananas or a food item carved into the shape of a phallus.[96]: 55  They also reported that the daughter of a ruler may be given a female slave as a sexual partner.[96]: 55  Evans-Pritchard also recorded that the male Azande were fearful of women taking on female lovers, as they might view men as unnecessary.[96]

Europe

Classical antiquity in Europe

Ancient Celts

According to

Poseidonius and speculates that these authors may be recording male "bonding rituals".[99]

Ancient Greece

Male couple (erastes and eromenos) kissing (Attic red-figured cup, c. 480 BCE)
Sappho reading to her companions on an Attic vase of c. 435 BCE

Same-sex relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman, but occurred before and beside it.[

Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown by some of the earliest documents concerning same-sex pederastic relationships, which come from ancient Greece. Often they were favored over women.[citation needed][101] Though slave boys could be bought, free boys had to be courted, and ancient materials suggest that the father also had to consent to the relationship.[citation needed
]

Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free adult male and a free adolescent was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally was blamed for causing disorder.[citation needed]

Cretans used it to regulate the population.[103]

Female youths are depicted surrounding Sappho in this painting of Lafond "Sappho sings for Homer", 1824.

The ideal held that both partners would be inspired by love symbolized by

anal intercourse did occur.[original research?] The hoped-for result was the mutual improvement of both erastes and eromenos, each doing his best to excel in order to be worthy of the other.[citation needed
]

love poetry which suggests a more emotional connection than earlier researchers liked to acknowledge.[citation needed
]

Sapphic and Lesbian) came to be applied to female homosexuality beginning in the 19th century.[105][106] Sappho's poetry centers on passion and love for various personages and both genders. The narrators of many of her poems speak of infatuations and love (sometimes requited, sometimes not) for various females, but descriptions of physical acts between women are few and subject to debate.[107][108]

Ancient Rome

Statue of Antinous (Delphi), polychrome Parian marble depicting Antinous, made during the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138 CE), his lover

In Ancient Greece and Phrygia, and later in the Roman Republic, the Goddess Cybele was worshiped by a cult of people who castrated themselves, and thereafter took female dress and referred to themselves as female.[109][110] These early transgender figures have also been referred by several authors as early role models.[111][112]

In Ancient Rome the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, but relationships were between older free men and slaves or freed youths who took the receptive role in sex. The Hellenophile emperor Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with Antinous.

In Roman patriarchal society, it was socially acceptable for an

adult male citizen to take the penetrative role in same-sex relations. Freeborn male minors were strictly protected from sexual predators (see Lex Scantinia), and men who willingly played the "passive" role in homosexual relations were disparaged. No law or moral censure was directed against homosexual behaviors as such, as long as the citizen took the dominant role with a partner of lower status such as a slave, prostitute, or someone considered infamis
, of no social standing.

The Roman emperor Elagabalus is depicted as transgender by some modern writers. Elagabalus was said to be "delighted to be called the mistress, the wife, the queen of Hierocles." Supposedly, great wealth was offered to any surgeon who was able to give Elagabalus female genitalia.

During the Renaissance, wealthy cities in northern Italy—Florence and Venice in particular—were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.[113][114] Attitudes toward homosexual behavior changed when the Empire fell under Christian rule; see for instance legislation of Justinian I.

The Middle Ages

Same-sex scholarly 'empires of the mind'[clarification needed] were common in medieval Middle Eastern cultures, as seen in their poetry on same-sex love.

According to

Roman Catholic Church had not condemned gay people
throughout its history, but rather, at least until the twelfth century, had alternately evinced no special concern about homosexuality or actually celebrated love between men." Boswell was also the author of Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe (New York: Villard, 1994) in which he argues that the adelphopoiia liturgy was evidence that attitude of the Christian church towards homosexuality has changed over time, and that early Christians did on occasion accept same-sex relationships.[116] His work attracted great controversy, as it was seen by many as merely an attempt for Boswell to justify his homosexuality and Roman Catholic faith. For instance, R. W. Southern points out that homosexuality had been condemned extensively by religious leaders and medieval scholars well before the 12th century; he also points to the penitentials which were common in early medieval society, and many of which include homosexuality as among the serious sins.[117]

Bennett and Froide, in Singlewomen in the European Past, note: "Other single women found emotional comfort and sexual pleasure with women. The history of same-sex relations between women in medieval and early modern Europe is exceedingly difficult to study, but there can be no doubt of its existence. Church leaders worried about lesbian sex; women expressed, practiced, and were sometimes imprisoned or even executed for same-sex love; and some women cross-dressed in order to live with other women as married couples." They go on to note that even the seemingly modern word "lesbian" has been traced back as far as 1732, and discuss lesbian subcultures, but add, "Nevertheless, we certainly should not equate the single state with lesbian practices." While same-sex relationships among men were highly documented and condemned, "Moral theologians did not pay much attention to the question of what we would today call lesbian sex, perhaps because anything that did not involve a phallus did not fall within the bounds of their understanding of the sexual. Some legislation against lesbian relations can be adduced for the period, mainly involving the use of "instruments," in other words, dildoes."[118]

Throughout the majority of

Trial of the Knights Templar.[121] The theologian Thomas Aquinas was influential in linking condemnations of homosexuality with the idea of natural law, arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices."[122]

The Renaissance

The

Henry VIII passed the Buggery Act 1533 making all male-male sexual activity punishable by death.[125]

Florentine homosexuality

Florence had a homosexual subculture, which included age-structured relationships.[126] In 1432 the city established Gli Ufficiali di Notte (The Officers of the Night) to root out the practice of sodomy. From that year until 1502, the number of men charged with sodomy numbered more than 17,000, of whom 3,000 were convicted. This number also included heterosexual sodomy.[127]

Association of homosexuality with foreignness

The reputation of Florence is reflected in the fact that the Germans adopted the word Florenzer to refer to a "sodomite".[127][128][page needed] The association of foreignness with homosexuality gradually became a cornerstone of homophobic rhetoric throughout Europe, and it was used in a calumnious perspective. For example, the French would call "homosexuality" the "Italian vice" in the 16th and 17th centuries, the "English vice" in the 18th century, the mœurs orientales (oriental mores) in the 19th century, and the "German vice" starting from 1870 and into the 20th century.[129]

Modern Europe

Prussian State Library
.

Psychology and terminology shifts

The developing field of psychology was the first way homosexuality could be directly addressed aside from Biblical condemnation. In Europe, homosexuality had been part of case studies since the 1790s with Johann Valentin Müller's work.[130] The studies of this era tended to be rigorous examination of "criminals", looking to confirm guilt and establish patterns for future prosecutions. Ambroise Tardieu in France believed he could identify "pederasts" affirming that the sex organs are altered by homosexuality in his 1857 publishing.[131][page needed] François Charles's exposé, Les Deux Prostitutions: études de pathologie sociale ("The Two Prostitutions: Study of the Social Pathology"), developed methods for police to persecute through meticulous documentation of homosexuality.[131] Others include Johann Caspar and Otto Westphal, Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. Richard von Krafft-Ebing's 1886 publication, Psychopathia Sexualis, was the most widely translated work of this kind.[131] He and Ulrichs believed that homosexuality was congenitally based, but Krafft-Ebing differed; in that, he asserted that homosexuality was a symptom of other psychopathic behavior that he viewed to be an inherited disposition to degeneracy.[131]

Degeneracy became a widely acknowledged theory for homosexuality during the 1870s and 1880s.

Benedict Augustin Morel is considered the father of degeneracy theory.[131] His theories posit that physical, intellectual, and moral abnormalities come from disease, urban over-population, malnutrition, alcohol, and other failures of his contemporary society.[131]

An important shift in the terminology of homosexuality was brought about by the development of psychology's inquisition into homosexuality. "Contrary sexual feeling",[131] as Westphal's phrased it, and the word "homosexual" itself made their way into the Western lexicons. Homosexuality had a name aside from the ambiguous term "sodomy" and the elusive "abomination". As Michel Foucault phrases it, "the sodomite had been a temporary aberration; the homosexual was now a species."[131]

Historical science shifts

To this day, historians are still arguing about the question of the Sexuality of Frederick the Great (1712–1786), which essentially revolves around the taboo of whether the myth of one of the greatest war heroes in world history is allowed to be psychologically deconstructed.[132]

Homosexuality in Modern Great Britain

Following the codification of anti-sodomy laws with the Buggery Act 1533, homosexual sex and relationships were greatly looked down upon and civilly prosecuted.[133] Although section 61 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 removed the death penalty for homosexuality, male homosexual acts remained illegal and were punishable by imprisonment.[133]

In contrast, lesbian relationships were frequently overlooked and legal codes that targeted homosexuality often did not cover sapphic love.[134][page needed] In one Scottish court case, a judge deemed sexual relationships between two women imaginary.[135] Only in cases where women broke gender roles and crossed into masculinity were they punished with public whippings and banishment, much less severe than their gay male counterparts.[136] However, Ballads celebrating cross-dressing female soldiers circulated during the Napoleonic Wars, frequently depicting women donning male garb flirting with men and occasionally even "female husbands" would appear.[137]

Various authors wrote on the topic of homosexuality. In 1735, Conyers Place wrote "Reason Insufficient Guide to Conduct Mankind in Religion".[138] In 1749, Thomas Cannon wrote "Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified".[139] In August, 1772, The Morning Chronicle publishes a series of letters to the editor about the trial of Captain Robert Jones.[140][141] In 1773, Charles Crawford wrote "A Dissertation on the Phaedon of Plato".[142]

Watercolour portrait of Lister, probably by a Mrs Turner of Halifax, 1822

Molly houses appeared in 18th century London and other large cities. A Molly house is an archaic 18th century English term for a tavern or private room where homosexual and cross-dressing men could meet each other and possible sexual partners. Patrons of the Molly house would sometimes enact mock weddings, sometimes with the bride giving birth. Margaret Clap (?–c. 1726), better known as Mother Clap, ran such a Molly house from 1724 to 1726 in Holborn, London. She was also heavily involved in the ensuing legal battles after her premises were raided by the police and shut down. Molly houses were perhaps the first precursors to the modern gay bar.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, male commentary on lesbian relationships became more common and increasingly eroticized.[143] The publication of Anne Lister's diaries revealed that as early as 1820, educated women had covert sexual and romantic relationships with other women, often while married to men and presenting as close female friendships.[144][135] Intensely emotional friendships between women were normal in England, making it difficult for scholars to definitively identify same-sex relationships.[145] However, modern scholars suspect that lesbian subscripts exist within much of the literature published by women, as female characters yearn romantically after other female characters, but that passion is silenced.[146] This is reflected by a large body of same-sex love poetry was written by women.[147]

Oscar Wilde

Oscar Wilde Memorial Bookshop
.

Alan Turing

In Britain, the view of homosexuality as the mark of a deviant mind was not limited to the psychiatric wards of hospitals but also the courts. An extremely famous case was that of

1885 statute on "gross indecency".[151] At the time there was great fear that Turing's sexuality could be exploited by Soviet spies, and so he was sentenced to choosing between jail and injections of synthetic estrogen. The choice of the latter led him to massive depression and dying at the age of 41 after biting into an allegedly poisoned apple.[152] Although it is popularly believed that Turing committed suicide, his death was also consistent with accidental poisoning.[153] It is estimated that an additional 50–75,000 men were persecuted under this law, with only partial repeal taking place in 1967 and the final measure of it in 2003.[154]

Decriminalization of homosexuality in France

Written on July 21, 1776, the Letter LXIII became infamous for its frank talk of human sexuality. Mathieu-François Pidansat de Mairobert published the letter in his 1779 book, "L'Espion Anglois, Ou Correspondance Secrete Entre Milord All'eye et Milord Alle'ar" (aka "L'Observateur Anglais or L'Espion Anglais") ("The English Spy, or Secret Correspondence Between my Lord All'eye and my Lord Alle'ar [aka The English Observer or The English Spy]").[155]

In 1791, Revolutionary France (and Andorra) adopted the French Penal Code of 1791 which no longer criminalized sodomy. France thus became the first West European country to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults.[156] Globally, various countries such as Madagascar have never criminalized homosexual activity.[157]

Soviet Union

The Soviet government of the

Russian Soviet Republic (RSFSR) decriminalised homosexuality in December 1917, following the October Revolution and the discarding of the Legal Code of Tsarist Russia.[158]

The legalisation of homosexuality was confirmed in the RSFSR Penal Code of 1922, and following its redrafting in 1926. According to Dan Healey, archival material that became widely available following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 "demonstrates a principled intent to decriminalize the act between consenting adults, expressed from the earliest efforts to write a socialist criminal code in 1918 to the eventual adoption of legislation in 1922."[159]

The Bolsheviks also rescinded Tsarist legal bans on homosexual civil and political rights, especially in the area of state employment. In 1918, Georgy Chicherin, a homosexual man who kept his homosexuality hidden, was appointed as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR. In 1923, Chicherin was also appointed People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR, a position he held until 1930.[160]

In the early 1920s, the Soviet government and scientific community took a great deal of interest in sexual research, sexual emancipation and homosexual emancipation. In January 1923, the Soviet Union sent delegates from the Commissariat of Health led by Commissar of Health Semashko

Institute for Sexual Research as well as to some international conferences on human sexuality between 1921 and 1930, where they expressed support for the legalisation of adult, private and consensual homosexual relations and the improvement of homosexual rights in all nations.[158][161] In both 1923 and 1925, Dr. Grigorii Batkis [ru], director of the Institute for Social Hygiene in Moscow, published a report, The Sexual Revolution in Russia, which stated that homosexuality was "perfectly natural" and should be legally and socially respected.[162][161] In the Soviet Union itself, the 1920s saw developments in serious Soviet research on sexuality in general, sometimes in support of the progressive idea of homosexuality as a natural part of human sexuality, such as the work of Dr. Batkis prior to 1928.[163][164] Such delegations and research were sent and authorised and supported by the People's Commissariat for Health under Commissar Semashko.[158][164]

Homosexuality in Modern Germany

The emancipation movement in Germany, 1890s–1934

on law.
2Marriage not available locally. Some jurisdictions may perform other types of partnerships.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, there has been a growing movement in a number of countries to regard marriage as a right which should be extended to

social security, taxation, inheritance and other benefits unavailable to couples not married, in the eyes of the law. Restricting legal recognition to opposite-sex couples prevents same-sex couples from gaining access to the legal benefits of marriage. Though certain rights can be replicated by legal means other than marriage (for example, by drawing-up contracts), many cannot, such as inheritance, hospital visitation and immigration. Lack of legal recognition also makes it more difficult for same-sex couples to adopt children.[citation needed
]

The first country to legalize same-sex marriages was the

Mexico, same-sex marriage is recognized in all states, but performed only in Mexico City, where it became effective on March 4, 2010.[206][207]

Same-sex marriage was effectively legalized in the United States on June 26, 2015, following the

U.S. states, comprising about 70% of the U.S. population. Federal benefits were previously extended to lawfully married same-sex couples following the Supreme Court's June 2013 decision in United States v. Windsor
.

Student groups

Since the mid-1970s, students at high schools and universities have organized LGBT groups, often called Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs) at their respective schools.

City Council
, Touro University retracted its revocation of the school's GSA. The university went on to reaffirm its commitment to non-discrimination based on sexual orientation.

In April 2016, the GSA Network changed their name from Gay-Straight Alliance Network to Genders & Sexualities Alliance Network in order to be more inclusive and reflective of youth who make up the organization.

Historical study of homosexuality

19th century and early 20th century

When Heinrich Hössli and K. H. Ulrichs began their pioneering homosexual scholarship in the late 19th century, they found little in the way of comprehensive historical data, except for material from ancient Greece and Islam.[211] Some other information was added by the English scholars Richard Burton and Havelock Ellis. In Germany, Albert Moll published a volume containing lists of famous homosexuals. By the end of the century, however, when the Berlin Scientific-Humanitarian Committee was formed it was realised that a comprehensive bibliographical search must be undertaken. The results of this inquiry were incorporated into the volumes of the Jahrbuch fur sexualle Zwischenstufen and Magnus Hirschfeld's Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes (1914). The Great Depression and the rise of Nazism put a stop to most serious homosexual research.

1950s and 1960s

As part of the growth of the contemporary gay movement in Southern California, a number of historical articles made their way into such movement periodicals as The Ladder, Mattachine Review, and One Quarterly. In France, Arcadie under the editorship of André Baudry published a considerable amount of historical material. Almost without exception, university scholars were afraid to touch the subject. As a result, much of the work was done by autodidacts toiling under less than ideal conditions. Since most of this scholarship was done under movement auspices, it tended to reflect relevant concerns; compiling a brief of injustices and biographical sketches of exemplary gay men and women of the past for example.

The atmosphere of the 1960s changed things. The sexual revolution made human sexuality an appropriate object of research. A new emphasis on social and intellectual history appeared, stemming in large measure from the group around the French periodical Annales. Although several useful syntheses of the world history of homosexuality have appeared, much material, especially from Islam, China and other non-Western cultures has not yet been properly studied and published, so that undoubtedly these will be superseded.[212]

School curricula

In 2011,

Illinois took effect in July 2020. Six southern states including Alabama, South Carolina, and Texas have laws banning LGBT history from being taught in schools.[214][213]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Rosenberg, Eli (June 24, 2016). "Stonewall Inn Named National Monument, a First for the Gay Rights Movement". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
  2. ^ "Workforce Diversity The Stonewall Inn, National Historic Landmark National Register Number: 99000562". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
  3. ^ Hayasaki, Erika (May 18, 2007). "A new generation in the West Village". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
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References

Further reading

External links