Offshore aquaculture
Offshore aquaculture, also known as open water aquaculture or open ocean aquaculture, is an emerging approach to
One of the concerns with
Critics are concerned about issues such as the ongoing consequences of using
Background
Aquaculture is the most rapidly expanding food industry in the world[7] as a result of declining wild fisheries stocks and profitable business.[2] In 2008, aquaculture provided 45.7% of the fish produced globally for human consumption; increasing at a mean rate of 6.6% a year since 1970.[8]
In 1970, a
Major challenges for the offshore aquaculture industry involve designing and deploying cages that can withstand storms, dealing with the logistics of working many kilometers from land, and finding species that are sufficiently profitable to cover the costs of rearing fish in exposed offshore areas.[11]
Technology
To withstand the high energy offshore environment, farms must be built to be more robust than those inshore.[2][12] However, the design of the offshore technology is developing rapidly, aimed at reducing cost and maintenance.[13]
While the
Existing offshore structures
Multi-functional use of offshore waters can lead to more sustainable aquaculture "in areas that can be simultaneously used for other activities such as energy production".
Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture
Roaming cages
Roaming cages have been envisioned as the "next generation technology" for offshore aquaculture.[13] These are large mobile cages powered by thrusters and able to take advantage of ocean currents.[13] One idea is that juvenile tuna, starting out in mobile cages in Mexico, could reach Japan after a few months, matured and ready for the market.[2] However, implementing such ideas will have regulatory and legal implications.[13]
Space conflicts
As oceans industrialise, conflicts are increasing among the users of marine space.
Ecological impacts
The ecological impacts of offshore aquaculture are somewhat uncertain because it is still largely in the research stage.[2]
Many of the concerns over potential offshore aquaculture impacts are paralleled by similar, well established concerns over inshore aquaculture practices.[23]
Pollution
One of the concerns with inshore farms is that discarded nutrients and feces can settle on the seafloor and disturb the
Wild caught feed
As with the inshore aquaculture of
Fish escapes
The expense of offshore systems means it is important to avoid fish escapes.
Disease
Compared to inshore aquaculture, disease problems currently appear to be much reduced when farming offshore. For example, parasitic infections that occur in mussels cultured offshore are much smaller than those cultured inshore.[14] However, new species are now being farmed offshore although little is known about their ecology and epidemiology.[2] The implications of transmitting pathogens between such farmed species and wild species "remains a large and unanswered question".[27]
Spreading of pathogens between fish stocks is a major issue in disease control.[27] Static offshore cages may help minimize direct spreading, as there may be greater distances between aquaculture production areas. However, development of roaming cage technology could bring about new issues with disease transfer and spread. The high level of carnivorous aquaculture production results in an increased demand for live aquatic animals for production and breeding purposes such as bait, broodstock and milt. This can result in spread of disease across species barriers.[27]
Employment
Aquaculture is encouraged by many governments as a way to generate jobs and income, particularly when wild fisheries have been run down.[2] However, this may not apply to offshore aquaculture. Offshore aquaculture entails high equipment and supply costs, and therefore will be under severe pressure to lower labor costs through automated production technologies.[7] Employment is likely to expand more at processing facilities than grow-out industries as offshore aquaculture develops.[2]
Prospects
As of 2008, Norway and the United States were making the main investments in the design of offshore cages.[28]
FAO
In 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) sub-committee on aquaculture made the following assessments:
- "Most Members thought it inevitable that aquaculture will move further offshore if the world is to meet its growing demand for seafood and urged the development of appropriate technologies for its expansion and assistance to developing countries in accessing them [...] Some Members noted that aquaculture may also develop offshore in large inland water bodies and discussion should extend to inland waters as well [...] Some Members suggested caution regarding potential negative impacts when developing offshore aquaculture.[29]
The sub-committee recommended the FAO "should work towards clarifying the technical and legal terminology related to offshore aquaculture in order to avoid confusion."[29]
Europe
In 2002, the European Commission issued the following policy statement on aquaculture:[30]
- "Fish cages should be moved further from the coast, and more research and development of offshore cage technology must be promoted to this end. Experience from outside the aquaculture sector, e.g. with oil platforms, may well feed into the aquaculture equipment sector, allowing for savings in the development costs of technologies."
By 2008, European offshore systems were operating in Norway, Ireland, Italy, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Croatia, Portugal and Libya.[3]
In Ireland, as part of their National Development Plan, it is envisioned that over the period 2007–2013, technology associated with offshore aquaculture systems will be developed, including: "sensor systems for feeding, biomass and health monitoring, feed control, telemetry and communications [and] cage design, materials, structural testing and modelling."[31]
United States
Moving aquaculture offshore into the
Current species
By 2005, offshore aquaculture was present in 25 countries, both as experimental and commercial farms.[7] Market demand means that the most offshore farming efforts are directed towards raising finfish.[10] Two commercial operations in the US, and a third in the Bahamas are using submersible cages to raise high-value carnivorous finfish, such as moi, cobia, and mutton snapper.[2] Submersible cages are also being used in experimental systems for halibut, haddock, cod, and summer flounder in New Hampshire waters, and for amberjack, red drum, snapper, pompano, and cobia in the Gulf of Mexico.[2]
The offshore aquaculture of shellfish grown in suspended culture systems, like
Global status
Global status of offshore aquaculture Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program [36] | |||
Location | Species | Status | Comment |
---|---|---|---|
Australia | tuna | C | 10,000 tonnes/year worth A$250 million |
California | striped bass, California yellowtail, Pacific halibut, abalone | E/C | Attempts to produce from an oil platform |
Canada | cod, sablefish, mussels, salmon | Mussels established in eastern Canada | |
Canary Islands | seabass, seabream | Two cages installed but not now used | |
China | unknown finfish, scallops | E | Small scale experiments on finfish |
Croatia | tuna | C | 8 offshore cages (1998) |
Cyprus | seabass, seabream | C | 8 offshore cages (1998) |
Faeroe Island | Failed trials | ||
France | seabass, seabream | C | 13 offshore cages (1998) |
Germany | seaweed, mussels | E | Trials using wind-farms |
Greece | seabass, seabream | C | |
Hawaii | amberjack, Pacific threadfin | C | |
Ireland | Atlantic salmon | E | Various experimental projects |
Italy | seabass, seabream, tuna | C | |
Japan | tuna, mussels | C | Commercial tuna ranching, offshore mussel long-lines. |
Korea | scallop | ||
Malta | seabass, seabream, tuna | C | 3 offshore cages (1998) |
Mexico | tuna | E | |
Morocco | tuna | C | |
New Hampshire | Atlantic halibut, cod, haddock, mussels, sea scallops, summer flounder | E/C | Experimental work from the University of New Hampshire, two commercial mussel sites |
New Zealand | mussels | About to become operational | |
Panama | tuna | C | |
Puerto Rico | cobia, snapper | C | |
Spain | seabass, seabream | C | Government assisting trials |
Turkey | seabass, seabream | C | |
Vietnam | barramundi | C | |
Washington | sablefish | C | |
Taiwan | cobia | C | 3,000 tonnes (2001) |
See also
- Offshore construction
- Ocean Development
Notes
- ^ ASEAN Seafood Expo 2017 Conference & Activity Programme
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Naylor, R., and Burke, M. (2005) "Aquaculture and ocean resources: raising tigers of the sea" Archived 2010-07-16 at the Wayback Machine Annual Review of Environmental Resources, 30:185–218.
- ^ doi:10.2791/31843
- ^ "Offshore aquaculture – DNV GL". DNV GL. Retrieved 2018-10-17.
- ^ a b Black KD, Hansen PK and Holmer M (2004) Working Group Report on Benthic Impacts and Farm Siting In: Salmon Aquaculture Dialogue, WWF.
- ^ a b c Upton, F. U., Buck, E. H. (2010) Open ocean aquaculture Congressional Research Service, CRS Report for Congress.
- ^ a b c d Skladany, M., Clausen, R., Belton, B. (2007) "Offshore aquaculture: the frontier of redefining oceanic property" Society and Natural Resources, 20: 169–176.
- ^ FAO. (2010) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture Rome. FAO, 2010, 197p.
- ^ Hanson, J. A. (Ed.) (1974) Open sea mariculture: Perspectives, problems and prospects. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
- ^ a b c d e f Rubino, Michael (Ed.) (2008) Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic Considerations, Implications & Opportunities U.S. Department of Commerce; Silver Spring, MD; USA. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS F/SPO-103. 263p.
- ^ Stickney, R. R., Costa-Pierce, B., Baltz, D. M., Drawbridge, M., Grimes, C., Phillips, S., Swann, D. L. (2006) "Towards sustainable open ocean aquaculture in the United States" Fisheries, 31(12): 607–610.
- ^ Cressey, D. (2009) "Future fish". Nature, 458: 398–400.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mann, C. C. (2004) "The bluewater revolution" Wired Mag. 12.05.
- ^ a b c d e Lado-Insua, T., Ocampo, F. J., Moran, K. (2009) "Offshore mussel aquaculture: new or just renewed?" Oceans ’09 IEEE Bremen: Balancing Technology with Future Needs, art. No. 5278263.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Finfish aquaculture Archived 2011-10-13 at the Wayback Machine Atlantic Marine Aquaculture Center, University of New Hampshire. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
- ^ a b c Carlsbad hatchery group proposes offshore aquaculture on oil platform Archived 2010-12-29 at the Wayback Machine North County Times, 19 June 2005.
- ^ a b c d Troell, M., Joyce, A., Chopin, T., Neori, A., Buschmann, A. H., Fang, J. (2009) "Ecological engineering in aquaculture – Potential for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine offshore systems" Aquaculture, 297: 1–9.
- ^ Buck BH, Krause G and Rosenthal H (2004) "Extensive Open Ocean Aquaculture Development Within Wind Farms in Germany: The Prospect of Offshore Co-Management and Legal Constraints" Ocean & Coastal Management, 47: 95–122
- ^ a b Grimes J (1999) "Competition for Common Property Space: New Hampshire's Recreational and Open Ocean Aquaculture. Development" Proceedings of the 1999 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium, GTR-NE-269, pp. 378–383.
- S2CID 18826628.
- ^ a b Harte MJ, Campbell HV and Webster J (2010) "Looking for a safe harbor in a crowded sea: Coastal space use conflict and marine renewable energy development" Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine In: Shifting Shorelines: Adapting to the Future,The 22nd International Conference of The Coastal Society.
- ^ Salmon Aquaculture Dialogue "State of Information" Reports WWF, 2004.
- ISSN 0044-8486.
- ^ Bekkevold, D., Hansen, M., Loeschcke, V. (2002) "Male reproductive competition in spawning aggregations of cod (Gardus morhua L.)" Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine Molecular Ecology, 11: 91–102.
- ^ a b c Walker, P. (2004) "Disease emergence and food security: global impact of pathogens on sustainable aquaculture production" Presented at Fish, Aquaculture and Food Security: Sustaining Fish as a Food Supply, Canberra, Australia.
- doi:10.2791/29677
- ^ ISBN 978-92-5-006716-2.
- ^ European Commission (2002) Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament – A Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture COM/2002/0511 Final, p.13.
- ISBN 1-902895-32-0.
- ^ National Sustainable Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2011 OpenCongress. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
- ^ New offshore aquaculture bill seeks to protect oceans Fis, 7 July 2011.
- ^ a b Shellfish aquaculture Archived 2011-10-13 at the Wayback Machine Atlantic Marine Aquaculture Center, University of New Hampshire. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
- ^ NOAA research harvests a sustainable way to farm the deep blue NOAA Magazine, Story 161. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
- ^ Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program p. 29. 2008. Twenty-Fifth Annual Technical Report. Aquaculture CRSP, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. Vol II, 288pp.
Further references
- James. M.A. and Slaski, R. (2006) Appraisal of the opportunity for offshore aquaculture in UK waters. Report of Project FC0934, commissioned by Defra and Seafish from FRM Ltd., 119 pp [1]
- Lee C and O’Bryenn PJ (Eds.) (2007) Open Ocean Aquaculture—Moving Forward Oceanic Institute workshop, Hawaii Pacific University.
- Nolan, Jean T (2009) Offshore Marine Aquaculture Nova Science. ISBN 978-1-60692-117-3.
- Aquaculture in the United States NOAA. Updated 18 July 2011.
- Stickney RR, Costa-Pierce B, Baltz DM, Drawbridge M, Grimes C, Phillips S and Swann DL (2006) Toward Sustainable Open Ocean Aquaculture in the United States Fisheries, 31 (12): 607–610.
- Offshore Aquaculture NOAA. Updated 22 October 2007.
- The National Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2007 NOAA. Updated 5 September 2008.
- Government Accountability Office Report on Offshore Aquaculture NOAA. Updated 18 June 2008.
- Mittal, Anu K. (2008) Offshore Marine Aquaculture: Multiple Administrative and Environmental Issues Need to be Addressed in Establishing a U.S. Regulatory Framework Diane Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4379-0567-0.
- Obama admin hands offshore aquaculture oversight to NOAA New York Times, 23 April 2009.
- Kapetsky JD and Aguilar-Manjarrez J (2007) Estimating open ocean aquaculture potential in EEZ with remote sensing and GIS: a reconnaissance[ISBN 978-92-5-105646-2.
- Watson, L and Drumm A (2007) Offshore Aquaculture Development in Ireland, next steps FAO fisheries technical report.
- James, Mark and Slaski, Richard (2007) Appraisal of the opportunity for offshore aquaculture in UK water CEFAS Finfish News, Issue 3.
- Offshore Aquaculture: The Next Wave for Fish Farming? World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- Offshore aquaculture viewpoints PBS. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- Open ocean aquaculture can be destructive Star Advertiser, 28 November 2010.
- Ocean of trouble: Report warns of offshore fish farming dangers Grist, 12 October 2011.