Ryukyuan people
This article includes improve this article by correcting them. (March 2024) ) |
琉球民族 | |
---|---|
Total population | |
4+ million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
| |
United States | 580,000[3] |
Japan (excl. Ryukyu Islands) | 480,000[4]note |
Brazil | 260,000[5]note |
Peru | 150,000[6]note |
Taiwan | -[6]note |
Argentina | -[6]note |
Canada | -[6]note |
Mexico | -[6]note |
Chile | -[6]note |
Philippines | -[6]note |
Languages | |
Religion | |
| |
Related ethnic groups | |
The Ryukyuan people (
Ryukyuans are not a recognized minority group in Japan, as Japanese authorities consider them a subgroup of the Japanese people, akin to the Yamato people. Although officially unrecognized, Ryukyuans constitute the largest ethnolinguistic minority group in Japan, with more than 1.8 million living in the Okinawa Prefecture alone. Ryukyuans inhabit the Amami Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture as well, and have contributed to a considerable Ryukyuan diaspora. Over a million more ethnic Ryukyuans and their descendants are dispersed elsewhere in Japan and worldwide, most commonly in the United States, Brazil, and, to a lesser extent, in other territories where there is also a sizable Japanese diaspora, such as Argentina, Chile and Mexico. In the majority of countries, the Ryukyuan and Japanese diaspora are not differentiated, so there are no reliable statistics for the former one.[citation needed]
Ryukyuans have a distinct culture with some
During the Japanese
United Nations special rapporteur on discrimination and racism Doudou Diène, in his 2006 report,[25] noted a perceptible level of discrimination and xenophobia against the Ryukyuans, with the most serious discrimination they endure linked to their opposition of American military installations in the archipelago.[26]
Etymology
Their usual ethnic name derives from the Chinese name for the islands, Liuqiu (also spelled as Loo Choo, Lew Chew, Luchu, and more),[11] which in the Japanese language is pronounced Ryuukyuu. In the Okinawan language, it is pronounced Duuchuu. In their native language they often call themselves and their identity as Uchinanchu.[27][28] These terms are rarely used outside of the ethnic community, and are politicized markers of a distinct culture.[29][clarification needed]
"Ryukyu" is an other name from the Chinese side, and "Okinawa" is a Japanese cognate of Okinawa's native name "Uchinaa", originating from the residents of the main island referring to the main island against the surrounding islands, Miyako and Yaeyama.[30] Mainland Japanese adapted Okinawa as the way to call these people.[citation needed]
Origins
Genetic studies
According to the recent genetic studies, the Ryukyuan people share more
According to archaeological evidence, there is a prehistoric cultural differentiation between the Northern Ryukyu Islands (Amami Islands and Okinawa Islands) and the Southern Ryukyu Islands (Miyako Islands and Yaeyama Islands). The genome-wide differentiation was pronounced, especially between Okinawa and Miyako. It is considered to have arisen due to genetic drift rather than admixture with people from neighboring regions, with the divergence dated to the Holocene, and without major genetic contribution of the Pleistocene inhabitants to the present-day Southern Islanders.[41] The Amami Islanders are also slightly more similar to the mainland population than the Okinawa Islanders.[42] An autosomal DNA analysis from Okinawan samples concluded that they are most closely related to other Japanese and East Asian contemporary populations, sharing on average 80% admixture with mainland Japanese and 19% admixture with Chinese population, and that have isolate characteristics.[34] The population closest to Ryukyu islanders is the mainland Japanese, followed by the Korean and Chinese populations. However, Taiwan aborigines were genetically distant from the Ryukyu islanders, even though these populations are geographically very close.[40]
The female mtDNA and male Y chromosome markers are used to
The research on the contemporary Okinawan male Y chromosome showed, in 2006; 55.6% of haplogroup
A genetic and morphological analysis in 2021 by Watanabe et al., found that the Ryukyuans are most similar to the southern Jōmon people of Kyushu, Shikoku, and Honshu. Southern Jōmon samples were found to be genetically close to contemporary East Asian people, and quite different from Jōmon samples of Hokkaido and Tohoku. Haplogroup D-M55 has the highest diversity within southern Japanese and Ryukyuans, suggesting a dispersal from southwestern Japan towards the North, replacing other Jōmon period lineages through genetic drift. Haplogroup D (D1) can be linked to an East Asian source population from the Tibetan Plateau ("East Asian Highlanders"), which contributed towards the Jōmon period population of Japan, and less to ancient Southeast Asians. Southern Jōmon people were found to share many SNPs with Tujia people, Tibetans, Miao people, and Tripuri people, rather than Ainu.[50] [failed verification]
Anthropological studies
The comparative studies on the dental diversity also showed long-term gene flow from outside source (main-island Honshu and from the southern part of East Asia), long-term isolation, and genetic drift which produced the morphological diversification of the modern Ryukyuans. However, the analysis contradicts the idea of homogeneity among the Jōmon people and a closer affinity between the Ainu and the Ryukyuans.[51][35][52][53][54][55][56] A recent craniometric study shows that the Ryukyuan people are closely related to the Yamato people and their common main ancestors, the Yayoi people. The Ryukyuans differ strongly from the Ainu people, which, according to the authors, is a strong evidence for the heterogeneity of the Jōmon period population.[57]
As previous morphological studies, such as Kondo et al. 2017, the genetic and morphological analysis by Watanabe et al. 2021, confirmed that the Jōmon period people were heterogeneous and differed from each other depending on the region. A North-to-South cline was detected, with the southern Jōmon of
Challenging the notion of ethnic homogeneity in Japan
The existence of the Ryukyuan people challenges the notion of ethnic homogeneity in post-WWII Japan. After the demise of the multi-ethnic
History
Early history
The Ryukyu Islands were inhabited from at least 32,000–18,000 years ago,[59] but their fate and relation with contemporary Ryukyuan people is uncertain.[60] During the Jōmon period (i.e., Kaizuka) or so-called shell midden period (6,700–1,000 YBP) of the Northern Ryukyus,[60] the population lived in a hunter-gatherer society, with similar mainland Jōmon pottery.[41] In the latter part of Jōmon period, archaeological sites moved near the seashore, suggesting the engagement of people in fishery.[61] It is considered that from the latter half of Jōmon period, the Ryukyu Islands developed their own culture.[62] Some scholars consider that the language and cultural influence was more far-reaching than blending of race and physical types.[61] The Yayoi culture which had a major influence on the Japanese islands, is traditionally dated from 3rd century BCE and recently from around 1000 BCE,[63] and is notable for the introduction of Yayoi-type pottery, metal tools and cultivation of rice, however although some Yayoi pottery and tools were excavated on the Okinawa Islands, the rice was not widely cultivated before the 12th century CE, nor the Yayoi and the following Kofun period (250–538 CE) culture expanded into the Ryukyus.[60] The Southern Ryukyus culture was isolated from the Northern, and its Shimotabaru period (4,500–3,000 YBP) was characterized by a specific style of pottery, and the Aceramic period (2,500–800 YBP), during which no pottery was produced in this region.[60][41] Their prehistoric Yaeyama culture showed some intermingled affinities with various Taiwanese cultures, broadly, that the Sakishima Islands have some traces similar to the Southeast Asian and South Pacific cultures. The Amami Islands seem to be the islands with the most mainland Japanese influence.[62] However, both north and south Ryukyus were culturally unified in the 10th century.[41]
The finding of ancient Chinese
The first certain mention of the islands and its people by the Chinese and Japanese is dated in the 7th century. Emperor Yang of Sui, due to previous tradition, between 607–608 held expeditions in search of the "Land of Happy Immortals". As the Chinese envoy and the islanders linguistically could not understand each other, and the islanders did not want to accept the Sui rule and suzerainty, the Chinese envoy took many captives back to the court. The islands, by the Chinese named Liuqiu (Middle Chinese: Lɨuɡɨu), would be pronounced by the Japanese as Ryukyu. However, when the Japanese diplomat Ono no Imoko arrived at the Chinese capital he noted that the captives probably arrived from the island of Yaku south of Kyushu. In 616 the Japanese annals for the first time mention the "Southern Islands people", and for the half-century were noted some intruders from Yaku and Tanu. According to the Shoku Nihongi, in 698 a small force dispatched by Japanese government successfully claimed the Tane-jima, Yakushima, Amami, Tokunoshima and other islands.[61] The Shoku Nihongi recorded that the Hayato people in southern Kyushu still had female chieftains in the early 8th century. In 699 are mentioned islands Amami and Tokara, in 714 Shingaki and Kume, in 720 some 232 persons who had submitted to the Japanese capital Nara, and at last Okinawa in 753. Nevertheless the mention or authority, over the centuries the Japanese influence spread slowly among the communities.[61]
Gusuku period
The lack of written record resulted with later, 17th century royal tales both under Chinese and Japanese influence, which were efforts by local chieftains to explain the "
During the Gusuku period (c. 1187–1314), with recent chronology dated from c. 900-950 CE,[64][65] Okinawans made significant political, social and economical growth. As the center of power moved away from the seashore to inland, the period is named after many gusuku, castle-like fortifications which were built in higher places.[62] This period is also notable, compared to mainland Japan, for fairly late introduction of agricultural production of rice, wheat, millet and the overseas trading of these goods,[62][47][44] as well during Shubanjunki's rule the introduction of Japanese kana writing system in its older and simple phonetic form.[61] After the years of famine and epidemic during the Gihon's rule, Eiso introduced regular taxation system (of weapons, grains and cloth) in 1264 and as the government gained strength, the control extended from Okinawa toward the islands of Kume, Kerama, Iheya, and Amami Ōshima (1266). Between 1272 and 1274, as the Mongol invasions of Japan began, Okinawa on two occasions rejected the Mongols' authority demands. To Eiso's reign period is also ascribed the introduction of Buddhism into Okinawa.[61]
Sanzan period
During the rule of Eiso's great-grandson,
In this period another rapid economical, social and cultural development of Ryukyu began as the polities had developed formal trade relations with Japan, Korea and China. During the
As in 1371, China initiated its maritime prohibition policy (
In 1392, 36 Chinese families from Fujian were invited by the chieftain of Okinawa Island's central polity (Chūzan) to settle near the port of Naha and to serve as diplomats, interpreters, and government officials.[66] Some consider that many Ryukyuan officials were descended from these Chinese immigrants, being born in China or having Chinese grandfathers.[71] They assisted the Ryukyuans in advancing their technology and diplomatic relations.[72][73] From the same year onward Ryukyu was allowed to send official students to China i.e. Guozijian.[74] The tributary relationship with China later became a basis of the 19th century Sino-Japanese disputes about the claims of Okinawa.[61]
Ryukyu Kingdom
Between 1416 and 1429, Chūzan chieftain
After the
In the early 17th century during the
During the rule of kings Shō Shitsu (1648–1668) and Shō Tei (1669–1709) i.e. sessei Shō Shōken (1666–1673) were recovered the internal social and economical stability with many laws about government organisation, and affairs like sugarcane production, and tax system with emphasis on agricultural production. The production was encouraged because Satsuma's annual tax deprived Ryukyu's internal resources. Although the production of sweet potatoes and sugar industry grew, the peasants were not allowed to enlarge their fields. The agricultural reforms especially continued under king Shō Kei (1713–1752) and his sanshikan advisor Sai On (1728–1752) whose Nomucho (Directory of Agricultural Affairs) from 1743 became the basis of the agricultural administration until the 19th century.[81] In the Sakishima Islands great part of the tax was paid in textiles made of ramie.[82] The relations with the Qing dynasty improved after their second mission when the first Ryukyuan official students were sent to China in 1688.[83]
In the first half of the 19th century, French politicians like Jean-Baptiste Cécille unsuccessfully tried to conclude a French trade treaty with Ryukyu,[84] with only a promise by Shuri government about the admission of Christian missionaries. However, due to extreme measures in teaching, Bernard Jean Bettelheim's propagation of Protestantism between 1846–1854 was obscured by the government.[83]
Meiji period
During the
In 1875, the Ryukyuan people were forced to terminate their tributary relations with China, against their preference for a state of dual allegiance to both China and Japan, something a then-weakened China was unable to stop. A proposal by the 18th U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant for a sovereign Okinawa and the division of the other islands between China and Japan was rejected, with a last-minute decision by the Chinese government not to ratify the agreement rendering it null. On three occasions between 1875 and 1879, the last Ryukyuan King, Shō Tai, refused to submit to the demands placed upon his people, and in 1879, his domain was formally abolished and established as Okinawa Prefecture, forcing his move to Tokyo with the reduced status of Viscount.[86][87][88][89]
Members of the Ryukyuan aristocratic classes such as Kōchi Chōjō and Rin Seikō continued to resist annexation for almost two decades;[90] however, following the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), both Chinese and Ryukyuan interest in sovereignty faded as China renounced its claims to the island.[91][18][92] Many historians criticise Meiji-era Japan's characterisation of the process as being considered a relatively simple administrative change, rather than the creation of Japan's first colony and the beginning of its "inner colonialism".[84][93]
During the Meiji period, as with the Ainu people of Hokkaido, the Ryukyuan people had their own culture, religion, traditions and language suppressed by the Meiji government in the face of forced assimilation.[12][20][94] From the 1880s onwards, schools forbade the display of Ryukyuan styles of dress, hairstyles and other visual aspects, considering them to be backwards and inferior, with students forced to wear Japanese clothing and to assimilate into Japanese culture.[95] Indoctrination into a militaristic and Emperor-centred ideology for children began from the age of beginning elementary school onwards;[96] the ultimate goal of this education was a total unification of the Ryukyuan people into the Yamato people, embodying the ideal of ethnic purity,[97] with contemporary Nihonjiron literature for the time ignoring Japan's minorities[98]). Ryukyuans often faced prejudice, humiliation in the workplace and ethnic discrimination,[99][100] with the Ryukyuan elite divided into factions either in support of or in opposition to assimilation.[20] Negative stereotypes and discrimination were common against the Ryukyuan people in the Japanese society.[101]
Around and especially after the Japanese annexation of Taiwan in 1895, Japan's developmental focus shifted away from Okinawa, resulting in a period of famine known as "Sotetsu-jigoku" ("Cycad hell"). Between 1920 and 1921, a fall in sugar prices, as well as the transfer of Japan's sugar production to Taiwan, led to Ryukyu being the poorest prefecture, despite having the heaviest taxation burden; the drop in sugar prices would continue into 1931, further worsening the situation.[102] As a result of the ensuing economic crisis, many people were forced to either find work in Japan (often Osaka and Kobe) or abroad in Taiwan.[103][104] By 1935, roughly 15% of the population had emigrated.[105]
WW2 and modern history
During World War II and battles like the Battle of Okinawa (1945), approximately 150,000 civilians (1/3 of the population) were killed in Okinawa alone.[106][107] After the war, the Ryukyu Islands were occupied by the United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands (1945–1950), but the U.S. maintained control even after the 1951 Treaty of San Francisco, which went into effect on April 28, 1952, as the USMMGR was replaced by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands (1950–1972). During this period the U.S. military requisitioned private land for the building of their facilities, with the former owners put into refugee camps, and its personnel committed thousands of crimes against the civilians.[vague][108] Only twenty years later, on 15 May 1972, Okinawa and nearby islands were returned to Japan.[12] Whereas the Japanese had enjoyed political freedom and economic prosperity in the post-war years, the facilities, used for the purposes of Japanese regional security against the communist threat, had a negative economic impact on the Islands, leading to many Ryukyuans feeling cheated, some considering the facilities a national disgrace.[61][109] Since 1972 there have been extensive plans to bring Okinawa's economy up to the national level, as well continued support for the local culture and a revival of traditional arts started by the USCAR.[110][111]
Okinawa comprises just 0.6% of Japan's total land mass, yet about 75% of all U.S. military installations stationed in Japan are assigned to bases in Okinawa.[112][113] The presence of the military remains a sensitive issue in local politics.[12] Negative feelings toward the mainland Government, Emperor (especially Hirohito due to his involvement in the sacrifice of Okinawa and later military occupation), and U.S. military (USFJ, SACO) have often caused open criticism and protests,[114] for example by 85,000 people in 1995 after the U.S. military rape incident,[115] and by 110,000 people in 2007 due to the Japanese Ministry of Education's textbook revisions (see MEXT controversy) which critics say downplays the involvement of the Japanese military in the forced mass suicide of the civilians during the Battle of Okinawa.[116][117] For many years the Emperors avoided visiting Okinawa, with the first ever in history done by Akihito in 1993,[118][119] since it was assumed that his visits would likely cause uproar, as in July 1975 when Akihito as a crown prince visited Okinawa and a firebomb was thrown at him,[118][120] although these tensions have eased in recent years.[121] Discrimination against Okinawans both past and present on the part of the mainland Japanese is the cause of their smoldering resentment against the government.[122] There is a small post-war Ryukyu independence movement, but there are also Okinawans who wish to be assimilated with the mainland.[12] A poll in 2017 by the Okinawa Times, Asahi Shimbun and Ryukyusu Asahi Broadcasting Corporation (QAB) jointly conducted prefectural public opinion surveys for voters in the prefecture. 82% of Okinawa citizens chose "I'm glad that Okinawa has returned as a Japanese prefecture". It was 90% for respondents of the ages of 18 to 29, 86% for those in their 30s, 84% for those aged 40–59, 72% for respondents in their 60s, 74% for those over the age of 70.[123]
Demography
Ryukyuans tend to see themselves as bound together by their home island and, especially among older Ryukyuans, usually consider themselves from
The Okinawans have a very low age-adjusted mortality rate at older ages and among the lowest prevalence of cardiovascular disease and other age-associated diseases in the world. Furthermore, Okinawa has long had the highest life expectancy at older ages, as well has had among the highest prevalence of
Culture
Language
Similarities between the
As the Jōmon-Yayoi transition (c. 1000 BCE) represents the formative period of the contemporary Japanese people from a genetic standpoint, it is argued that the Japonic languages are related to the Yayoi migrants as well.[132] The estimated time of separation between Ryukyuan and mainland Japanese is a matter of debate due to methodological problems; older estimates (1959–2009) varied between 300 BCE and 700 CE, while novel (2009–2011) around 2nd century BCE to 100 CE, which has a lack of correlation with archeology and new chronology according to which Yayoi period started around 950 BCE,[133] or the proposed spread of the Proto-Ryukyuan speakers to the islands in the 10–12th century from Kyushu.[134][135] Based on linguistic differences, they separated at least before the 7th century, before or around Kofun period (c. 250–538), while mainland Proto-Ryukyuan was in contact with Early Middle Japanese until 13th century.[136]
The Ryukyuan languages can be subdivided into two main groups, Northern Ryukyuan languages and Southern Ryukyuan languages.[137] The Southern Ryukyuan subfamily shows north-to-south expansion,[clarification needed] while Northern Ryukyuan does not, and several hypothetical scenarios can be proposed to explain this.[138] It is generally considered that the likely homeland of Japonic—and thus the original expansion of Proto-Ryukyuan—was in Kyushu, though an alternate hypothesis proposes an expansion from the Ryukyu Islands to mainland Japan.[139][138][140]
Although authors differ regarding
During the
It is considered that contemporary people older than 85 exclusively use Ryukyuan, between 45 and 85 use Ryukyuan and standard Japanese depending on family or working environment, younger than 45 are able to understand Ryukyuan, while younger than 30 mainly are not able to understand nor speak Ryukyuan languages.
Religion
Native
The village priestesses, Noro, until the 20th century used the white cloth and magatama beads. The noro's duty was to preserve the generational fire in the hearth, a communal treasure, resulting with tabu system about the fire custodian in which they had to be virgins to maintain close communication with the ancestors. The office became hereditary, usually of the noro's brother's female child. The center of worship was represented by three heartstones within or near the house.[61] The belief in the spiritual predominance of the sister was more prominent in Southern Ryukyus.[155]
The introduction of Buddhism is ascribed to a 13th century priest from Japan (mostly funeral rites[155]), while the 14th century trade relations resulted with Korean Buddhism influences (including some in architecture), as well Shinto practices from Japan.[61] Buddhism and native religion were ideological basis until 18th century, when Confucianism gradually and officially became government ideology during Shō On (1795–1802), much to the dismay of Kumemura.[156] It was mostly important to the upper class families.[155] Among the Catholic converts was not lost the former religious consciousness.[155]
Until the 18th century, the Ryukyuan kings visited the Sefa-utaki (historical sacred place) caves for worship. Another traditional sacred places are springs Ukinju-Hain-ju, where was placed the first rice plantation, and small island Kudaka, where the "five fruits and grains" were introduced by divine people, perhaps strangers with agricultural techniques.[61] The foremost account, which claimed common origin between the Japanese and Ryukyuan people, was made-up by Shō Shōken in the 17th century, to end up the pilgrimage of the Ryukyu king and chief priestess to the Kudaka island.[157]
During the Meiji period the government replaced Buddhism with Shintoism as the islands' state religion,[158] and ordered; rearrangement of statues and redesign of shrines and temples to incorporate native deities into national Shinto pantheon; Shinto worship preceded native, Buddhist, or Christian ritual; transformation of local divinities into guardian gods.[20] In the 1920s was ordered building of Shinto shrines and remodelling of previous with Shinto architectural symbols, paid by local tax money, which was a financial burden due to the collapse of sugar prices in 1921 which devastated Okinawa's economy.[96] In 1932 were ordered to house and support Shinto clergy from the mainland.[96]
Most Ryukyuans of the younger generations are not serious adherents of the native religion anymore. Additionally, since being under Japanese control, Shinto and Buddhism are also practiced and typically mixed with local beliefs and practices.
Cuisine
Okinawan food is rich in
The weight-loss Okinawa diet derives from their cuisine and has only 30% of the sugar and 15% of the grains of the average Japanese dietary intake.[159]
Arts
The techniques of
The
It is considered that the rhythms and patterns of dances, like Eisa and Angama, represent legends and prehistoric heritage.[61] Ryūka genre of songs and poetry originate from the Okinawa Islands. From the Chinese traditional instrument sanxian in the 16th century developed the Okinawan instrument sanshin from which the kankara sanshin and the Japanese shamisen derive.[160]
Women frequently wore indigo tattoos known as
The bashôfu, literally meaning "banana-fibre cloth", is designated as a part of Ryukyu and Japan "important intangible cultural properties". The weaving using indigenous ramie was also widespread in the archipelago, both originated before the 14th century.[161]
Originally living in thatching houses, townsmen developed architecture modeled after Japanese, Chinese and Korean structures. Other dwellings suggest a tropical origin, and some villages have high stone walls, with similar structural counterpart in Yami people at Orchid Island.[61]
For the listed categories of Cultural Properties see; archaeological materials, historical materials, crafts, paintings, sculptures, writings, intangible, and tangible.
Notable Ryukyuans
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2018) |
Martial arts
- Matsumura Sōkon
- Ankō Itosu
- Ankō Asato
- Kenwa Mabuni (Shitō-ryū)
- Gichin Funakoshi (Shotokan)
- Chōjun Miyagi (Gōjū-ryū)
- Motobu-ryu)
- Tatsuo Shimabuku (Isshin-ryū)
- Uechi-ryū)
- Kentsū Yabu (teacher of Shōrin-ryū)
Academics, journalism, and literature
- Sai On
- Shō Shōken
- Tei Junsoku
- Iha Fuyū
- Higashionna Kanjun
- Ōta Chōfu (journalist)
- Tatsuhiro Oshiro(novelist)
- Kushi Fusako(novelist)
Music
- Namie Amuro
- Begin
- Beni
- Cocco
- Da Pump
- Gackt (singer-songwriter and actor)
- Chitose Hajime
- High and Mighty Color
- MAX
- Mongol800
- Orange Range
- Speed
- Stereopony
Visual arts
- Mao Ishikawa (photography)[162]
- Yuken Teruya
- Chikako Yamashiro (film)
Entertainment
- Actress Nigeru wa Haji da ga Yaku ni Tatsu
- choreographer)
- Actress Fumi Nikaido, notable for the FX/Disney+ miniseries Shōgun.
Sports
- Nagisa Arakaki (baseball)
- Hideki Irabu (baseball)
- Yukiya Arashiro (bicycle racer)
- Kazuki Ganaha (football)
- Yoko Gushiken (boxing)
- Akinobu Hiranaka (boxing)
- Katsuo Tokashiki (boxing)
- Daigo Higa (boxing)
- Ai Miyazato (golf)
- Ken Gushi (drifting)
In Hawaii
- Yeiki Kobashigawa (U.S. World War II soldier and Medal of Honor recipient)
- Yoshi Oyakawa (Olympic gold medalist)[163]
- Ethel Azama (singer)
- David Ige (former Governor of Hawaii)
- Jake Shimabukuro (ukulele player)
- Ryan Higa (Youtuber)[164]
- Michael S. Nakamura (Nakandakari) (Former Honolulu Chief of Police)[165]
Other parts of the United States
- Kishi Bashi (musician)
- Yuki Chikudate (singer)
- Tamlyn Tomita (actor)
- Brian Tee (actor)
- Natasha Allegri (storyboard artist)
- Dave Roberts(baseball player and coach)
- Maya Higa (YouTuber/conservationist)
Throughout the world
- Takeshi Kaneshiro (actor in Taiwan)
- Sakura Miyawaki (singer in South Korea, member of the idol group Le Sserafim)
Notable fictional characters
- Karate Kidtrilogy
- Mugen from the anime series Samurai Champloo
- Mutsumi Otohime from the manga series Love Hina
- Soulcaliburseries of video games
- The heroines-leads protagonist Yuri Miyazono from the Witchblade: Ao no Shōjo novels
- Nanjo Takeshi, Arakaki Mari, and Ryuzuka, characters in the 1973 film Bodigaado Kiba: Hissatsu sankaku tobi
See also
- History of the Ryukyu Islands
- Ryukyu independence movement
- Ryukyuan culture
- Ethnic issues in Japan
- Okinawa Prefecture
- Ryukyuan diaspora
- Okinawans in Hawaii
- Ryukyuans in Brazil
- Ryukyuan Americans
References
Citations
- ^ 沖縄県の推計人口 (in Japanese). Okinawa Prefecture. March 1, 2020. Retrieved April 21, 2020.
- ^ 奄美群島の現状・課題及び これまでの奄振事業の成果について (PDF) (in Japanese). Kagoshima Prefecture. April 23, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 20, 2021. Retrieved April 21, 2020.
- ^ Mitchell, Jon (2016-10-22). "Welcome home, Okinawa". The Japan Times Online.
- ^ Rabson, Steve. The Okinawan Diaspora in Japan: Crossing the Borders Within. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2012. 2.
- ^ Nakasone, Ronald. Okinawan Diaspora. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
- ^ a b c d e f g Nakasone, Ronald. Okinawan Diaspora. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
- ^ a b Patrick Heinrich (2014-08-25). "Use them or lose them: There's more at stake than language in reviving Ryukyuan tongues". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 2019-01-07. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
- ^ Yuka Suzuki (2012-12-02). "Ryukyuan, Ainu People Genetically Similar Read more from Asian Scientist Magazine". Asian Scientist. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ISBN 9780765682222.
- ^ Lewchew and the Lewchewans: Being a narrative of a visit to Lewchew or Loo Choo, in October, 1850. London, 1853. About the Ryukyu Islands. (Also available at: [1]) by George Smith
- ^ ISBN 978-1-61069-018-8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Masami Ito (12 May 2009). "Between a rock and a hard place". The Japan Times. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ "Did you know Hachijo is endangered?". Endangered Languages. Retrieved 2020-04-06.
- ^ Loo 2014, p. 1–2.
- ^ "Okinawa: The Tears of the Ryukyuans - Xinhua | English.news.cn".
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 3.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 61.
- ^ a b Dubinsky & Davies 2013, p. 12.
- ^ Christy 2004, p. 173–175.
- ^ a b c d Rabson 2008, p. 4.
- ^ a b Dubinsky & Davies 2013, p. 15–16.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 49–50, 63, 66–67.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 65–66.
- ^ Doudou Diène (18 January 2006). Meghna Abraham (ed.). "The Special Rapporteur on Contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance" (PDF). International Service for Human Rights E/CN.4/2006/16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
- ^ Tanaka Hiroshi; Oda Makoto; Pak Kyongnam; William Wetherall; Honda Katsuichi (March 2006). "The Diene Report on Discrimination and Racism in Japan" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
- ^ "Harvard Asia Quarterly". Harvard Asia Quarterly. 8: 52. 2004. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
- ^ "Okinawans and Hawaiians discuss how best to educate youth about traditional cultures". Ryūkyū Shimpō. 12 July 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
- ^ Obermiller 2006, p. 17, 119.
- ^ 小玉, 正任 (2007). 琉球と沖縄の名称の変遷. 琉球新報社.
- ^ PMID 27581845.
- PMID 26510569.
- PMID 25758010.
- ^ PMID 24444611.
- ^ PMID 23135232.
- .
- PMID 20091849.
- PMID 22456480.
- ^ S2CID 205166287. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ PMID 37468573.
- ^ PMID 25086001. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- PMID 22509376.
- ^ a b Ken-ichi Shinoda; Tsuneo Kakuda; Naomi Doi (2012). "Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in late Shell midden period skeletal remains excavated from two archaeological sites in Okinawa" (PDF). Bulletin of the National Museum of Nature and Science, Series D. 38: 51–61. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ a b c Ken-ichi Shinoda; Tsuneo Kakuda; Naomi Doi (2013). "Ancient DNA Analyses of Human Skeletal Remains from the Gusuku Period in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan" (PDF). Bulletin of the National Museum of Nature and Science, Series D. 39: 1–8. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
- ^ .
- PMID 15466285.
- ^ PMID 16328082.
- PMID 23135232.
- ^ "記者会見「日本列島3人類集団の遺伝的近縁性」". 東京大学 (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-11-08.
- ^ S2CID 229293389.
- .
- .
- S2CID 12061839. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- .
- PMID 26719788.
- S2CID 28167073.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.380.1457.
- ^ a b Oguma, Eiji (February 5, 2020). "「麻生発言」で考えた…なぜ「日本は単一民族の国」と思いたがるのか?". Mainichi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 2021-10-17.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 37.
- ^ a b c d Pellard 2015, p. 27.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Kerr 2000.
- ^ a b c d Hendrickx 2007, p. 38.
- ^ Robbeets 2015, p. 26.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 21.
- ^ Robbeets 2015, p. 28.
- ^ a b c Hendrickx 2007, p. 39.
- ^ Gluck 2008, p. 939.
- ^ Loo 2014, p. 1.
- ^ a b Hendrickx 2007, p. 42.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 28.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-2687-6. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
- ISBN 978-3-447-05474-4. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
- ISBN 978-0-313-30712-6. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 41.
- ^ Kerr 2000, p. 115.
- ^ Kerr 2000, p. 151–152.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 43.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 43–45.
- ^ Loo 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 45.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 46–50.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 51–52.
- ^ a b Hendrickx 2007, p. 52–53.
- ^ a b Smits 2004, p. 228.
- ^ Loo 2014, p. 2.
- ^ Smits 2004, p. 228–230.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 56–57.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 61–62.
- ^ Loo 2014, p. 1, 26–32.
- ^ Obermiller 2006, p. 23–24.
- ^ a b Hendrickx 2007, p. 59.
- ^ Loo 2014, p. 32–36.
- ^ Gluck 2008, p. 938.
- ^ Smits 2004, p. 233–245.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 64.
- ^ a b c Rabson 2008, p. 5.
- ^ Dubinsky & Davies 2013, p. 3.
- ^ Liddicoat 2013, p. 54.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 67–70.
- ^ Christy 2004, p. 173–185.
- ^ Zohar, Ayelet (October 15, 2020). "Introduction: Race and Empire in Meiji Japan". The Asia-Pacific Journal. Retrieved November 12, 2023.
- ^ Smits 2004, p. 233.
- ^ Christy 2004, p. 177, 180–182.
- ^ Obermiller 2006, p. 86.
- ^ Nakasone 2002, p. 17.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. 4.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. XIII–XV.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. XIII–XIV, 4–5.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 64.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. 48–49, 79.
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 2.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. 2.
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 11, 17.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 1.
- ^ Inoue 2017, p. XXVII.
- ^ a b David E. Sanger (1993-04-25). "A Still-Bitter Okinawa Greets the Emperor Coolly". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 13.
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 11–13.
- ^ Rabson 2008, p. 14.
- ISBN 978-1-134-21760-1
- ^ 【日本に復帰してよかった?】 沖縄82%が肯定、若い世代ほど高く 県民意識調査. Okinawa Times (in Japanese). 2017-05-12.
- ^ Kerr 2000, p. 454.
- ^ Smits, Gregory. Visions of Ryukyu. University of Hawai'i Press. 1999. Pp 1–3.
- ^ Glacken, Clarence. "The Great Loochoo: A Study of Okinawan Village Life". University of California Press. 1955. Pp 299–302.
- ^ Santrock, John (2008). "Physical Development and Biological Aging". In Mike Ryan, Michael J. Sugarman, Maureen Spada, and Emily Pecora (eds.): A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (pp. 129-132). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
- Shiro Hattori. (1954) Gengo nendaigaku sunawachi goi tokeigaku no hoho ni tsuite ("Concerning the Method of Glottochronology and Lexicostatistics"), Gengo kenkyu (Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan), Vols. 26/27.
- ^ Dubinsky & Davies 2013, p. 13–16.
- ^ Bentley 2015, p. 39, 48.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 15–16.
- ^ Robbeets 2015, p. 27.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 20–21.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 29–32.
- ^ Robbeets 2015, p. 28–29.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 23.
- ^ Pellard 2015, p. 16–20.
- ^ a b Pellard 2015, p. 25–26.
- ^ Serafim 2008, p. 98–99.
- ^ Bentley 2015, p. 49, 54, 58.
- ^ Heinrich, Miyara & Shimoji 2015, p. 1–2.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 14.
- ^ Liddicoat 2013, p. 151–152, 209.
- ^ Liddicoat 2013, p. 151–152.
- ^ Dubinsky & Davies 2013, p. 16.
- ISBN 978-1-85359-490-8. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-415-15069-9. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
- ^ a b c Dubinsky & Davies 2013, p. 17.
- ^ Liddicoat 2013, p. 152–154, 209.
- ^ Liddicoat 2013, p. 209.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 20.
- ^ Heinrich, Miyara & Shimoji 2015, p. 1.
- ^ Sered 1996, p. 54–55.
- ^ Røkkum 2006, p. 219.
- ^ a b c d Sered 1996, p. 41.
- ^ Smits 2004, p. 240.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 46.
- ^ Caprio 2014, p. 66.
- S2CID 8145691
- ISBN 978-0-549-50670-6.
- ^ Hendrickx 2007, p. 27, 64.
- ^ "A tribute to the women of '70s Okinawa". 16 July 2017.
- ^ "Did you Know". www.huoa.org. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
- ^ Higa, Ryan (August 14, 2010). "Tweet 21137901638". Twitter. Retrieved January 8, 2016.
- ^ "Our Chiefs".
Sources
- Bentley, John R. (2015). "Proto-Ryukyuan". In Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.). Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-115-1.
- Caprio, Mark (2014). Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910-1945. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-99040-8.
- Christy, Alan S. (2004). "The making of imperial subjects in Okinawa". In ISBN 978-0-415-20857-4.
- Dubinsky, Stanley; Davies, William (2013). ISSN 1550-0713.
- ISBN 9780231143233.
- Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (2015). "Introduction: Ryukyuan languages and Ryukyuan linguistics". In Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.). Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-115-1.
- Hendrickx, Katrien (2007). The Origins of Banana-fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan. Leuven University Press. ISBN 978-90-5867-614-6.
- Inoue, Masamichi S. (2017). Okinawa and the U.S. Military: Identity Making in the Age of Globalization. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51114-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4629-0184-5.
- Liddicoat, Anthony J. (2013). Language-in-education Policies: The Discursive Construction of Intercultural Relations. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-84769-916-9.
- Loo, Tze May (2014). Heritage Politics: Shuri Castle and Okinawa's Incorporation into Modern Japan, 1879–2000. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-8249-9.
- Nakasone, Ronald Y. (2002). Okinawan Diaspora. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2530-0.
- Obermiller, David John (2006). The United States Military Occupation of Okinawa: Politicizing and Contesting Okinawan Identity, 1945-1955. ISBN 978-0-542-79592-3.
- Pellard, Thomas (2015). "The linguistic archeology of the Ryukyu islands". In Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.). Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-115-1.
- Rabson, Steve (February 2008). "Okinawan Perspectives on Japan's Imperial Institution". The Asia-Pacific Journal. 6 (2). Retrieved 8 February 2017.
- Robbeets, Martine (2015). Diachrony of Verb Morphology: Japanese and the Transeurasian Languages. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-039994-3.
- Røkkum, Arne (2006). Nature, Ritual, and Society in Japan's Ryukyu Islands. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-25365-4.
- ISBN 978-90-272-4809-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-510467-7.
- ISBN 978-0-415-20857-4.
- https://www.statista.com/statistics/1080646/japan-number-japanese-residents-malaysia/
- https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/malaysia/data.html
- https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000599220.pdf%7Carchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827101438/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000599220.pdf%7Curl-status=dead%7Carchive-date=August
- Abu Bakr Morimoto, Islam in Japan: Its Past, Present and Future, Islamic Centre Japan, 1980
- Arabia, Vol. 5, No. 54. February 1986/Jamad al-Awal 1406
- Hiroshi Kojima, "Demographic Analysis of Muslims in Japan," The 13th KAMES and 5th AFMA International Symposium, Pusan, 2004
- Michael Penn, "Islam in Japan: Adversity and Diversity," Harvard Asia Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 1, Winter 2006
- Keiko Sakurai, Nihon no Musurimu Shakai (Japan's Muslim Society), Chikuma Shobo, 2003
- Esenbel, Selcuk; Japanese Interest in the Ottoman Empire; in: Edstrom, Bert; The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions; Surrey 2000
- Esenbel, Selcuk; Inaba Chiharū; The Rising Sun and the Turkish Crescent; İstanbul 2003, ISBN 978-975-518-196-7
- A fin-de-siecle Japanese Romantic in Istanbul: The life of Yamada Torajirō and his Turoko gakan; Bull SOAS, Vol. LIX-2 (1996), S 237-52 ...
- Research and Analysis Branch (15 May 1943). "Japanese Infiltration Among the Muslims Throughout the World (R&A No. 890)" (PDF). Office of Strategic Services. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 27, 2016.
Further reading
- University of Hawaii at Manoa. Ethnic Studies Oral History Project (1981). Uchinanchu, a History of Okinawans in Hawaii. Leiden: Center for Oral History, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa and Hawai‘i United Okinawa Association. ISBN 9780824807498
- Ouwehand, C. (1985). Hateruma: socio-religious aspects of a South-Ryukyuan island culture. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07710-3
- Pacific Science Congress, and Allan H. Smith. (1964). Ryukyuan culture and society: a survey. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
- Sakiyama, R. (1995). Ryukyuan dance = Ryūkyū buyō. Naha City: Okinawa Dept. of Commerce, Industry & Labor, Tourism & Cultural Affairs Bureau.
- Yamazato, Marie. (1995). Ryukyuan cuisine. Naha City, Okinawa Prefecture: Okinawa Tourism & Cultural Affairs Bureau Cultural Promotion Division.
- Kreiner, J. (1996). Sources of Ryūkyūan history and culture in European collections. Monographien aus dem Deutschen Institut für Japanstudien der Philipp-Franz-von-Siebold-Stiftung, Bd. 13. München: Iudicium. ISBN 3-89129-493-X
- Ota, Masahide. (2000). Essays on Okinawa Problems. Yui Shuppan Co.: Gushikawa City, Okinawa, Japan. ISBN 4-946539-10-7C0036.
- Patrick Heinrich; Fija Bairon (3 November 2007), ""Wanne Uchinanchu – I am Okinawan." Japan, the US and Okinawa's Endangered Languages" (PDF), The Asia-Pacific Journal, 5 (11)